ASPECTS OF THE SOCIAL PHILOSOPHIES OF JOHN DEWEY AND REINHOLD NIEBUHR AS THEY RELATE TO EDUCATION DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By JOHN MARTIN RICH, B.A., M.A, The Ohio State University 1958 Approved by Advisee¥ Department of Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Professor Everett J. Kircher and Lewis A. Bayles, former assistant instructor in philosophy of education, for early direction in understanding the significance of this study. I am grateful to Professors Robert E. Jewett and Bernard Mehl for careful reading of my manuscript and for their many thoughtful criticisms and suggestions. The deep and continued interest and encourage­ ment shown by my mother has done so much in helping me to see my educational development in its full perspective. Without the untiring assistance, patience, and understanding of my wife, this dissertation would not be possible. I could never express the profound gratitude and respect that I hold for my major adviser, Professor H. Gordon Hullfish, who has given so freely of his time, energy, and critical intelli­ gence not only to my dissertation, but throughout my entire doctoral program. ii To Jeffrey for a better and brighter world iii CONTENTS Chapter Page INTRODUCTION 1 I. THE BASIS OF SOCIAL RELATIONS 5 Introduction 5 Section I. Niebuhr A. The Nature of Individuality 7 B. The Dimensions of the Self 14 C. The 'Will-to-Live' and the • Will-to-Power'. 20 D. The Individual and the Social 26 Section II. Dewey A. The Individual and Society 32 B. Language and "Mindful" Behavior 38 Section III. Discussion Introduction 49 A. Human Nature 50 B. The Basis of Human Association 52 C. The 'Individual' and the 'Social' 54 D. Communication and Social Behavior 63 II. THE PROBLEMS OF FREEDOM AND AUTHORITY IN AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 70 Introduction 70 Section I; Niebuhr 73 A. The problem of Human Freedom 73 B. A Christian Interpretation of Freedom in History 76 C. Justice: Its Obstacles and Fulfillments . 79 Section II: Dewey A. The Nature of Human Liberties 84 B. Liberty and Natural Rights 88 C. Stability and Change . • 91 iv CONTENTS (CONT'D) Chapter • Page Section III: Discussion Justice and Coercive Measures 95 III. POLITICS AND THE SOCIAL ORDER 105 Introduction 105 Section I: Niebuhr A. The Process of Group Organization 107 B. The Use of Political Power 110 C. Power Politics and the International . Community 119 Section II: Dewey A. Political Pluralism 126 B. The Problems of Individualism ....... 135 C. A New Direction for Liberalism 142 Section III: Discussion A. Introduction to the Political Scene .... 147 B. The Use and Abuse of Political Power . 149 C. Self-interest and Objectivity in Political Action 154 D. Social Changes and Political Problems Facing American Democracy 156 IV. EDUCATION 162 Introduction 162 A. Aims of Education 164 B. Local Contrel of Education 169 C. Liberalism and the Idea of Progress .... 172 D. Education, Society, and Social Reform . 179 BIBLIOGRAPHY 193 v INTRODUCTION The twentieth century arrived in an atmosphere of hope and promise. It was then generally believed that rela­ tionships among peoples everywhere would be increasingly humanized and enhanced. But this noble hope was soon to be shattered. By mid-century man could look back upon two world wars, the psychic isolation of societies, totalitarian revolutions and their concomitant dehumanization of social relations, and proverty and squalor juxtaposed with opulence and waste. It is small wonder that the minds of many men turned from their former optimism, engendered by a belief in the inevitability of progress, to that of apprehension, doubt, and distrust. "Some find refuge in a fanatical faith and in reliance upon infallible leaders of the people; others seek evasion of responsibility in simplifying and comforting panaceas; many are simply wary and have given up the attempt to understand and to act."1 Many false prophets have arisen, meanwhile, ready to present a multitude of solutions. But these have not eradicated the causes of disorder and, in consequence, anxieties have worsened when false panaceas have been exposed. An ominous realization has grown among us that •^Hans Kohn, The Twentieth Century, preface. 1 2 the "grounds of our civilization, of our certitude, are breaking up under our feet, and familiar ideas and institu­ tions vanish as we reach for them like shadows in the falling dusk." Imminent danger was never more disquieting, even as the promise of our age was never greater. From out of these pressing necessities, America has sought the solution to her problems, basically, by aligning with one or the other dominant trends of thought in our age. The unified approach, found in the writings of John Dewey, who has been America's greatest exponent of this position, offered the scientific method of problem-solving, the reorgan­ ization of human experience, and the development of human values in a naturalistic setting. The other approach is dualistic, appealing for cosmic support as it seeks the resolution of human problems. In America, Reinhold Niebuhr, the widely known Christian theologian, has met the challenge with a persuasive political realism buttressed by a Christian orthodoxy. Throughout his writings he re-interprets Christian ethics for social and political life in the perplexing twentieth century, since he recognizes the failure of Christianity in the past to deal with the social scene. Niebuhr, with Randall, acknowledges that the predominant credence once given so freely to the religious approach has waned considerably since the Middle Ages. "All in all, the — Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Vital Center, p. 1. 3 outstanding religious phenomena of the century has been not so much the fading of faith, as its transfer from a theologi­ cal and cosmic to a human and social object."3 These two writers embody, within a delimited social locus, the predominant directions our culture takes in aspir­ ing to bring about a better world. The writer assumes, however, that Niebuhr and Dewey, though they present two greatly divergent philosophic positions, are concerned with similar problems and, at times, share somewhat similar conclusions of great significance. The purpose of this investigation, then, is threefold. First, it will investigate the divergent philosophic positions of these social critics, to bring out any and all fruitful similarities. Second, it will analyze selected aspects of the complex problems of social and polit­ ical life in America as these are reflected within these social problems. Third, it will explore the implications of the social and political climate in American life, as seen by these social critics, as these bear upon public education as a social institution within a pluralistic culture. There are four major chapters, each composed of three major parts. Sections I and II of each chapter present expository statements of the basic ideas of Dewey and Niebuhr 3 John H. Randall, Jr., The Making of the Modern Mind. P. 539. 4 on the particular subject of the chapter. Section III of each chapter is a discussion of these ideas. Chapter I deal with the basis of social relations. It considers the nature of man, the way in which he becomes social in habits and outlook and, finally, analyzes the communicative process to discover how social relations are made meaningful. Chapter II is concerned with the problems of social justice. The relationship of formal law-making and organiza­ tional processes of society to the need for human freedom is examined. Chapter III considers the powers of state in relation to voluntary groupings and primary social relations. Dif­ ferent levels of community relations are explored through a consideration of the use of social power. Finally, the possibilities of forming an international community, and the persistent obstacles that impede progress in this direction, are discussed. Chapter IV applies the findings of the first three chapters to the problem of uncovering the social role of American public education within the context of a dynamic, complex, and presently disturbed society. CHAPTER I THE BASIS OF SOCIAL RELATIONS Introduction This chapter endeavors to bring to the fore some significant assumptions concerning human nature and social relations. The problem of man's relationship to his fellows has raised fundamental questions that men have confronted for years; yet the questions still need further and renewed consideration. Amongthe questions that need further study are: What are the potentials of human beings in achieving a higher level of life? How does the need arise to converse and interact with one's fellows? What are the possibilities for creativity and growth? In the writings of John Dewey and Reinhold Niebuhr we find major and divergent philosophic systems that deal pro­ foundly and persuasively with this subject. Their divergent outlook leads them into different channels of thought, and the resulting consequences provide some fruitful contradic­ tions in respective points of view that need serious consid­ eration. It is the purpose of this chapter to inquire into their systems in order to illuminate this perennial problem. Throughout the history of philosophy and the social sciences, scholars have speculated on the nature and limits 5 6 of man that derive fromnatural and acquired potentials, and how these potentials or basic capacities are used to estab­ lish and further social relations. There have been a profu­ sion of theories advanced depicting man in many diverse ways: from that of extreme depravity to that of infinite perfect- ability, with most scholars, writers, and students of human nature falling somewhere between these extremes. By first postulating man's basic nature, social theorists have moved forward deductively to the nature of society and social control. If man were viewed as essentially depraved and corrupt, greater and more stringent social controls and less individual freedom were needed.