IFPRI Discussion Paper 01380 October 2014 Towards Understanding Economic Growth in Africa A Reinterpretation of the Lewis Model Xinshen Diao Margaret McMillan Development Strategy and Governance Division INTERNATIONAL FOOD POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), established in 1975, provides evidence-based policy solutions to sustainably end hunger and malnutrition and reduce poverty. The Institute conducts research, communicates results, optimizes partnerships, and builds capacity to ensure sustainable food production, promote healthy food systems, improve markets and trade, transform agriculture, build resilience, and strengthen institutions and governance. Gender is considered in all of the Institute’s work. IFPRI collaborates with partners around the world, including development implementers, public institutions, the private sector, and farmers’ organizations, to ensure that local, national, regional, and global food policies are based on evidence. AUTHORS Xinshen Diao ([email protected]) is deputy director and a senior research fellow in the Development Strategy and Governance Division of the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC. Margaret McMillan ([email protected]) is a senior research fellow in the Development Strategy and Governance Division IFPRI, Washington, DC. She is also a professor of Economics and National Bureau of Economic Research faculty research associate at Tufts University, Medford, MA. Notices IFPRI Discussion Papers contain preliminary material and research results and are circulated in order to stimulate discussion and critical comment. They have not been subject to a formal external review via IFPRI’s Publications Review Committee. Any opinions stated herein are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily representative of or endorsed by the International Food Policy Research Institute. Copyright 2014 International Food Policy Research Institute. All rights reserved. Sections of this material may be reproduced for personal and not-for-profit use without the express written permission of but with acknowledgment to IFPRI. To reproduce the material contained herein for profit or commercial use requires express written permission. To obtain permission, contact the Communications Division at [email protected] Contents Astract v Acknowledgments vi 1. Introduction 1 2. Characteristics of Developing Africa’s Growth in the 21st Century 4 3. A Conceptual Framework Adapted from Lewis 12 4. Taking the Framework to the Data 18 5. Conclusion 29 Appendix A: Model Equations 30 Appendix B: Sectors, Initial Value of Selected Variables, and Parameters 41 Appendix C: Selected Model Results 42 References 45 iii Tables 2.1 African countries’ economic growth in the 21st century 4 2.2 Growth rate in per capita GDP and share of nonmanufacturing industry and services in GDP 5 2.3 Growth in trade at current and constant prices for the 17 fast-growth African countries (2000–2012 annual average, %) and share of net exports in GDP (2000 and 2012, %) 7 2.4 Manufacturing exports as a share of total exports: all of Africa south of the Sahara and developing Africa south of the Sahara 8 2.5 Share of final consumption, investment, and net exports in GDP at current prices for the 17 fast- growth African countries (2000 and 2012) 9 2.6 Productivity growth decomposition: contribution of within-sector growth and structural change (annual average in 2000–2012, %) 10 4.1 The five fastest-growth sectors in the Rwandan economy (1999–2012) 19 4.2 Growth results of the model, average annual growth rate (2013–2025) 24 4.3 The dynamic factors that lead to the simulation results 25 4.4 Productivity results from the model (average annual growth rate, 2013–2025) 26 B.1 Sectors and economic structure of the Rwandan SAM in 2011 41 B.2 Wage rates and factor returns in year 1 in the model (100,000 FRW) 41 B.3 Elasticity in total factor productivity growth function in the model 41 Figures 4.2 Share of three sectors in GDP under less-foreign-grant-dependent scenario (%) 27 4.3 Real exchange rate and relative price index of closed and open economies under the two scenarios (base year value = 1.0) 28 C.1 Total factor productivity growth rate (%) 42 C.2 National gross domestic product growth rate (%) 42 C.3 Total investment growth rate (%) 43 C.4 Share of trade deficit in gross domestic product (%) 43 C.5 Growth rate of tradable and nontradable gross domestic product (%) 44 C.6 Incomes of the closed household relative to the open household, base year normalized to 1.0 44 iv ASTRACT Africa’s recent economic growth is at a historical high, the patterns associated with this growth appear to be quite different from the Asian experiences where rapid growth was fueled by labor intensive, export- oriented manufacturing. Because this pattern differs with our typical view of structural transformation, a heated debate has begun over the sustainability of Africa’s growth. In our view, Africa’s recent growth is still not well understood and thus it is difficult to say much that is meaningful about future prospects for growth on the continent. Against this background, we adapt Lewis’s (1954) dual-economy model to the economies of Africa to better understand the role that the “in-between” sector as defined by Lewis (1979) has played in Africa’s recent growth. Our framework incorporates the coexistence of a closed and an open modern economy and takes into account the diversity and heterogeneity of the activities that characterize modern African economies. We apply this framework to the economy of Rwanda to assess Rwanda’s future growth prospects based on different levels of foreign capital inflows. We find that the composition of growth and patterns of structural change are different depending on the assumptions about foreign inflows. Higher foreign inflows lead to significantly more growth in the closed modern economy and stagnant growth in the open modern economy, a phenomenon consistent with recently observed patterns of growth across several African countries. Keywords: dual-economy model, Africa’s growth, structural change, Rwanda v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank, without implicating in any way, Dani Rodrik for several helpful conversations and for his patience with us as we tried to make sense of Africa’s recent growth. We would also like to thank Justin Lin for inviting us to present this work at first International Symposium/Summer School on New Structural Economics and Development in Africa organized by National School of Development, Peking University in June 2014 in Beijing, and many of the participants for helpful comments. We thank the staff at the Ministry of Agriculture in the Republic of Rwanda, Kigali, for providing several datasets, government documents, and other unpublished materials. Finally, we thank Inigo Verduzco-Gallo, Zara Qureshi, and Amarachi Utah for excellent research assistance. The authors also acknowledge the financial support of CGIAR’s research program of Policy, Institution and Market and the United States Agency for International Development. vi 1. INTRODUCTION An economy does not divide into a capitalist sector hiring workers for factories and other large units on the one hand, and a small farming sector on the other hand. In between are units of production of all sizes, and in particular a great number of one-to-five-man undertakings in manufacturing, transport and a wide range of services—often nowadays called the informal sector. Some of this activity belongs in the modern sector as we have defined it; i.e., it will expand with economic development; the rest— – e.g., some of the handicrafts and some of the services—belong to the traditional sector in that they will contract. The expansion of small scale activity in the modern sector is an important part of the development process. This is not because it is a temporary resting-place for migrants from the countryside seeking jobs in large scale enterprise. In LDCs, no less than in MDCs (as we shall see in our next section) jobs in large scale urban enterprises are not normally awarded to people who have no connections. It is rather because this sector of the economy is useful in its own right, meeting genuine market needs, and providing a lot of employment in the process. Arthur Lewis, “The Dual Economy Revisited Africa’s recent economic growth has sparked a heated debate over its sources and sustainability. Some argue that growth across the continent is fundamentally a result of a mining boom and rising commodity prices (Lipton 2012). The underlying tone of this message is that when commodity prices collapse, so too will Africa’s growth rates. A more fundamental concern is that Africa’s recent growth has not been accompanied by adequate structural change (see, among others, the United Nations Economic Commission on Africa [2014] and the African Center for Economic Transformation [2014]). What has been seen as poor prospects for industrialization has led some to argue that we need to manage our expectations about Africa’s future growth prospects (Rodrik 2014a). In this paper, we argue that Africa’s recent growth is not well understood. We do know that the growth has not been driven by labor-intensive large-scale manufacturing in the way it was in many developing Asian countries (McMillan and Harttgen 2014). But we are equally ignorant about the roles that domestic markets and small and medium-size enterprises have played in Africa’s recent growth. In China and Vietnam and in many other Asian countries, large declines in the employment share in agriculture were matched by significant increases in the employment share in labor-intensive and export- oriented manufacturing. Instead, the recent and significant decline in the employment share in agriculture in most African countries has been accompanied by a proliferation of small and medium-size enterprises in manufacturing, transportation, construction, and a wide range of services.