^l|{Io(osicaf Seminary Xibrarg ' '.h THE (3IFT OF '... 31tetttg ''lai, , X Sage ^*i^^# OF ITHACA. CorneK "ainitieirisitg 5LIN lIBR- DATE^-i^^"^^^DUE •^.- . Cornell University Jbrary The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924024496337 THE STOICS, EPICUEEANS AND SCEPTICS LONDON : PRINTED BT SP0TTI8W00DH AND 00., NEW-STBEBT SQTJABB AND PAELIAMBNT STEBET 7<i^' CORNELL < v^ UNIVERSITY^. THE STOICS, EPICUEEANS < ^ AND SCEPTICS TRANSLATED FSOU THE GEBMAN OF m E. ZELLEK Professor of the University of Heidelberg BY OSWALD J, EEICHEL, B.C.L. & M.A. Ticar of Sparsbolt, Berks A NEW AND BEVISEB EDITION LONDON LONGMANS, OREEN, AND CO. 1880 50£ X6\ t PEEFACE, The present translation aims at supplying an intro- ductory volume to a later period of the history of mind in Greece, which may be collectively described as the post-Aristotelian. To the moralist and theo- logian no less than to the student of philosophy this period is one of peculiar interest ; for it supplied the scientific mould into which Christianity in the early years of its growth was cast, and bearing the shape of which it has come down to us. Spaesholt Vicarage : October, 1879. CONTENTS. PAET I. STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE. CHAPTER I, THE INTELLECTUAL AND POLITICAL STATE OP GREECE AT THE CLOSE OP THE POUETH CENTURY, B.C. PAGE A. Merits and defects of the systems of Plato and Aris- totle . .1 B. Connection between the theories of Aristotle and the Greek character . .6 C. Greece after the battle of Chseronea . 12 CHAPTER II. CHARACTER AND CHIEF FEATURES OF THE POST-ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY. A. Causes forming the post-Aristotelian philosophy . 15 1. Political causes . 1.5 2. Intellectual causes . .17 B. Common characteristics of the post - Aristotelian phi- losophy . .19 1. Theory subordinated to practice . 19 2. Peculiar mode of treating the practical problem . 21 3. These peculiarities illustrated by subsequent phi- losophy . .22 viii CONTENTS. C. Development of the post-Aristoteliau philosophy 5 1. Dogmatic Schools—Stoics and Epicureans, Dogma- • 25 tic Scepticism . 2. Sceptical Schools—influences producing—Sceptic- 26 ism and Eclecticism . 3. Eeligious School of Neoplatonists . .31 PAET II. THE STOICS. CHAPTER in. HISTORY OP THE STOICS UNTIL THE END OF THE SECOND CBNTTJEY, B.C. A. 36 40 40 41 43 45 45 48 AUTHORITIES FOE THE STOIC PHILOSOPHY; ITS PROBLEM AND DIVISIONS. A. Authorities ...... 53 1. Review of authorities' . 53 2. Use to be made of authorities . .55 . CONTENTS. PAGE Dynamical theory of Nature . .139 1. Matter and force . .139 2. Nature of force ..... 141 3. Deity—God as force—God as matter . 148 Pantheism ...... 156 1. God identical with the wofld . • 156 2. Relative difference between God and the world . 158 3. Views of Boethus . .159 CHAPTER VII. THE STUDY OF ITATUEE : 2. COUESB, CHAEACTEB, AND GOVERNMENT OP THE UNIVBESB. The General Course of the Universe . 161 1. Origin of the world . 161 2. End of the world . .163 3. Cycles in the world's course . 165 Government of the World .... 170 1. Nature of Destiny—as Providence—as Generative Reason ...... 170 2. Arguments in favour of Providence . 173 3. The idea of Providence determined . 175 Nature of the World ..... 182 1. Its unity and perfection . 183 2. Moral theory of the world .... 187 CHAPTER VIII. THE STUDY OP NATUEB : 3. IRRATIONAL NATURE. THE ELEMENTS.—THE UNIVEESE. A. The most general ideas on Nature 194 B. The Elements 197 (}. The Universe 202 1. The stars 204 2. Meteorology 206 3. Plants and animals . 208 — CONTENTS. li OHAPTER IX. THE STUDY OF NATtjEB : 4. MAN. PAGE A. The Soul ..... .210 1. MateriaKstio nature of the soul . 210 2. Divisions of the soul .... 213 B. The Individual Soul and the Soul of the Universe . 216 C. Freedom and Immortality .... 219 CHAPTER X. ETHICS: 1. THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE STOIC ETHICS. ABSTEACT THEORY OP MORALITY. A. The Highest Good . .225 1. Nature of the Highest Good . 225 2. The Good and Evil . .230 3. Pleasure and the Good . 235 4. Negative character of Happiness . 239 5. The Highest Good as Law . 240 B. Emotions and Virtue ..... 243 1. The Emotions—their nature—varieties of . 243 2. Idea of Virtue —position and negative aspects of the virtues severally—their mutual relations unity of virtue .... 254 C. The Wise Man ... 268 1. Wisdom and Folly . 268 2. Universal Depravity . 272 3. Conversion ..... 275 OHAPTER XI. ETHICS: 2. THE STOIC THEORY OP MORALS AS MODIFIED IN PRACTICE. A, Things to be preferred and eschewed . 278 1. Secondary goods ..... 280 2. Classes of things indifferent , . 281 3. Collision of. modified and abstract theory . 284 xu CONTENTS. B. C. CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. THE STOIC PHILOSOPHT AS A WHOLE AND ITS HISTOEICAL ANTECEDENTS. PAGE A. Inner connection of the system .... 381 1. Ethical side of Stoicism .... 382 2. Scientific side of the Stoic system . 383 3. Connection of the moral and scientific elements . 385 B. Relation of Stoicism to previous systems . 387 1. Its relation to Socrates and the Cynics . 387 2. Relation to Megarians and Heraclitus . 392 3. Relation to Aristotle . .396 4. Relation to Plato . .399 C. The Stoic philosophy as a whole .... 400 1. Its place in history ..... 400 2. Its onesidedness ..... 402 PART in. THE EPICUREANS. CHAPTER XV. EPICtTREANS AHD THE EPICUEEAJT SCHOOL. A. Epicurus ..... 404 B. Scholars of Epicurus .... 408 C. Epicureans of the Roman period 411 CHAPTER XVI. OHAEACTEE AND DIVISIONS OF THE EPICUREAN TEACHING. THE TEST-SCIENCE OF TKUTH. A. Character of Epicurean system . 418 1. Its power of self-preservation 418 XIT CONTENTS. PAGE 2. Aim of philosophy according to the Epicvireans . 420 3. Divisions of philosophy .... 424 • Canonic or the Test- Science of Truth . .425 1. Sensation and perception .... 425 2. Notions . .428 3. Opinion . ,. .429 4. Standard of truth suhjective . 431 CHAPTER XVn. A. CONTENTS. OHAPTEK XIX. THE MOKAL SCIENCE OF THE EPICUREANS : 1. GENERAL VIEWS. A. Pleasure ..... xvi CONTENTS. PAET IV. THE SCEPTICS: PYJRSSO AND THE OLDER ACADEMY. CHAPTER XXII. PYEKHO. PAGE Historical position of Scepticism . 614 1. Relation to cotemporary dogmatic systems 514 2. Causes producing it 515 3. Pyrrho and his followers 517 Teaching of Pyrrho 521 1. Impossibility of knowledge 521 2. 'Withholding of judgment 523 3. Mental imperturbability 525 CHAPTER XXIII. THE NEW ACADEMY. A. Arcesilaus . 528 1 Denial of knowledge . 528 2. Probability . 534 B. Cameades ... 535 1. Negative views of . 588 2. Positive . views of . 553 C. School of Carneades . 563 GENEEAL . INDEX . .567 ; PART I.. STATE OF CVLTURE IN GREECE. CHAPTER I. THE INTELLECTTJAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF GREECE AT THE CLOSE OF THE FOURTH CENTURY. In Plato and Aristotle Greek PMlosophy reached Chap. ^' its greatest perfection. In their hands the Soeratic philosophy of conceptions had been developed into elaborate systems, embracing the whole range of A.. Merits contemporary knowledge, and grouping it from de- 'Ti "^S'^x finite points of view so as to afford a connected view systems of of the universe. The study of nature had been sup- :^^f^„^^ plemented by careful enquiries into morals, and had been itself transformed, enlarged, and enriched by Aristotle. In metaphysics, the foundations of a phi- losophical building had been by him laid deeply, everything that is having been thoroughly referred to first principles, so as no previous philosopher had attempted. A multitude of phenomena which earlier thinkers had carelessly passed by, in particular the phenomena of mental life, had been pressed into the service of research ; new questions had been raised B STATE OF CULTURE IN GREECE. Chap, new answers given. Into every branch of knowledge " new ideas had reached and penetrated. Idealism, that beautiful and telling expression of the Greek mind, had been set forth by Plato in pure brilliancy, and had been united by Aristotle with the most careful observation. Practice and theory had brought the dialectic method to the position of an art, and a valuable instrument of thought had been gained in the scientific use of terms of which Aristotle was the T-eal originator. Within a few generations the intel- lectual treasures of Greece had been increased mani- fold both in extent and value. The heritage received by Socrates from his predecessors could hardly be re- cognised as the same left by Aristotle to his successors. Oreat as was the progress made by Greek phi- losophy in the fourth century before Christ, equally great, however, were the difficulties with which it had perpetually to contend ; not less difficult the problems for the solution of which it had to labour. Already Aristotle had pointed out the weak points in the system of Plato, rendering it impossible for him to rest therewith content. From the platform of present knowledge still further objections would be naturally urged. And again as r^ards AristotleJ even in his system inconsistencies on some of the most important points may be found concealed under* a certain indefiniteness of expression, fatal if once brought to light to the soundness of the wholeJ "With all his ingenuity, Aristotle had not succeeded in blending into one harmonious whole all the ele^ ments out of which his system was composed. Hence MERITS AND DEFECTS OF EARLIER SYSTEMS. the divergencies of his immediate followers from the Chap. original Aristotelian teaching may be explained. ' Nor were these defects of a kind that could be easily got over. On the contrary, the more the matter is gone into, the clearer it becomes that these defects were embedded in the foundations of the systems both of Plato and Aristotle, underlying in short the whole previous career of philosophic thought.