Demography, diet and state of health in Roman York Volume 1 Lauren Jennifer McIntyre Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Archaeology The University of Sheffield September 2013 Abstract This study combines new and pre-existing osteological evidence with archaeological evidence in order to reconstruct the demographic composition, broad dietary patterns and health status of the population of Roman York. This research examines the composition of the military and civilian sectors of the population, dietary patterns inferred from the study of dental remains, and differences in health according to social and occupational status categories within the population. Results indicate that the population had significant male bias, under- representation of infants and sub-adults, and approximately equal male and female life expectancy. Diets are likely to have been rich in fat and protein, and low in both cariogenic foods and foods that provide vitamins. Compared to contemporary urban sites, York had significantly elevated prevalence of ante- mortem trauma and porotic hyperostosis. Comparatively high rates of dislocation, peri-mortem trauma, brucellosis, osteopenia, os acromiale and osteochondroma were also observed. These findings suggest that the demographic composition of the population is heavily influenced by the presence of the military. A combination of osteological, isotopic, archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological and literary evidence indicates that dietary staples in the town appear to have been spelt based products such as bread, and beef. Other dietary components are likely to have included dairy products such as sheep’s milk and cheese, olive oil, dried figs and fish. It is also likely that the populace were consuming lesser quantities of sugary products (e.g. containing honey and syrup), and fresh fruit and vegetables than populations from contemporary towns. Some of the observed pathological conditions with elevated values at Eboracum may be the result of poor comparative data, osteological rarity of a condition, or a combination of complex causal factors. Elevated prevalence of traumatic injury in some skeletal elements of the cranium and several post-cranial skeletal elements was significantly associated with an unusual group of burials from sites located on Driffield Terrace. Table of Contents List of Figures………………………………………………………………….....v List of Tables………………………………………………………...…………xiii Acknowledgements…………………………………………...………………..xix 1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………..1 1.1. Current State of Knowledge: the People of Roman York………………...2 1.2. Researching the Populations of Roman Britain…………………………..4 1.3. The Present Project……………………………………………………...12 1.4. Summary………………………………………………………………...19 2. Eboracum in Context………………………………………………………..21 2.1. Eboracum – the Growth and Decline of a British Town………………..21 2.2. Archaeological Study of Eboracum…………………………………….37 2.3. Excavation of the Roman Cemeteries…………………………………...44 2.4. Funerary Evidence from Eboracum……………………………………..48 2.5. Summary………………………………………………………………...55 3. Materials and Methodology………………………………………………..57 3.1. Materials………………………………………………………………...57 3.2. Comparative Materials…………………………………………………..66 3.3. Methodology…………………………………………………………….70 3.3.1. Recording……………………………………………………………….70 3.3.2. Demography…………………………………………………………….85 3.3.3. Diet………………………………………………………..……………100 3.3.4. State of Health…………………………………………………………110 3.4. Summary……………………………………………………………….112 4. Results……………………………………………………………………...113 4.1. Demography……………………………………………………………113 4.1.1. Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI)………………………...…113 4.1.2. Stature………………………………………………………........……113 4.1.3. Sex………………………………………………………………………116 4.1.4. Age at Death…………………………………………………………..120 i 4.1.5. Spatial Density Analysis……………………………………….…….141 4.1.6. Population Size………………………………………….……….……149 4.2. Diet…………………………………………………………….....……158 4.2.1. Dental Calculus……………………………………………………….158 4.2.2. Enamel Hypoplasia…………………………………………………..161 4.2.3. Dental Caries………………………………………………………….162 4.2.4. Ante-Mortem Tooth Loss…………………………………………….163 4.2.5. Periapical Cavities……………………………………………………166 4.2.6. Periodontal Disease………………………………………………….168 4.2.7. Coarseness of Diet……………………………………………………170 4.2.8. Summary……………………………………………………………….170 4.3. State of Health…………………………………………………………172 4.3.1. Trauma…………………………………………………………………172 4.3.1.1. Craniofacial Trauma…………………………………….172 4.3.1.2. Post-Cranial Trauma……………………………………178 4.3.1.3. Dislocation……………………………………………...185 4.3.1.4. Spondylolysis…………………………………………...187 4.3.1.5. Peri-Mortem Trauma……………………………………189 4.3.1.6. Summary: Trauma………………………………………195 4.3.2. Congenital Conditions and Developmental Abnormalities……..196 4.3.2.1. Spina Bifida……………………………………………..196 4.3.2.2. Sacralisation…………………………………………….198 4.3.2.3. Os Acromiale…………………………………………...200 4.3.2.4. Summary: Congenital Conditions and Developmental Abnormalities………………………………………………..202 4.3.3. Circulatory Disorders………………………………………..………203 4.3.3.1. Osteochondritis Dissecans…………………………...…203 4.3.3.2. Summary: Circulatory Disorders………………….……206 4.3.4. Joint Disease……………………………………………………….....207 4.3.4.1. Spinal Joint Disease…………………………………….207 4.3.4.2. Schmorl’s Nodes………………………………………..210 4.3.4.3. Extra-Spinal Joint Disease……………………………...212 4.3.4.4. Gout……………………………………………………..217 4.3.4.5. Sacroiliac Fusion………………………………………..219 ii 4.3.4.6. Summary: Joint Disease………………………………...221 4.3.5. Infectious Disease………………………………………………….…222 4.3.5.1. Tuberculosis…………………………………………….222 4.3.5.2. Brucellosis………………………………………………224 4.3.5.3. Maxillary Sinusitis……………………………………...224 4.3.5.4. Non-Specific Infection………………………………….226 4.3.5.5. Summary: Infectious Disease…………………………...231 4.3.6. Metabolic Disease and Deficiency………………………………….232 4.3.6.1. Osteopenia………………………………………………232 4.3.6.2. Osteoporosis…………………………………………….233 4.3.6.3. Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis……………...236 4.3.6.4. Summary: Metabolic Disease and Deficiency………….242 4.3.7. Neoplastic Conditions………………………………………………..243 4.3.7.1. “Button” Osteoma………………………………………243 4.3.7.2. Osteochondroma………………………………………..245 4.3.7.3. Summary: Neoplastic Disease…………………………..247 4.3.8. Other Pathological Conditions……………………………………..248 4.3.8.1. Paget’s Disease………………………………………….248 4.3.8.2. Lytic Abnormalities…………………………………….249 4.3.8.3. Abscess/Bone Cysts…………………………………….251 4.3.8.4. Summary: Other Pathological Conditions……………...252 4.3.9. Summary: Overall Patterns of Health in Roman Britain………..253 5. Discussion…………………………………………………………………..256 5.1. Demography: Population Size and Composition………………………256 5.2. Distribution of Burials…………………………………………………274 5.3. Dietary Composition…………………………………………………...276 5.4. State of Health………………………………………………………….293 5.5. Summary……………………………………………………………….314 6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………….316 6.1. Limitations of the Study………………………………………………..318 6.2. Future Potential………………………………………………………...319 6.3. Final Remarks: The Importance of the People of Roman York……….321 Bibliography……………………………………………………………….323 iii Appendix 1: Site Gazetteer……………………………………………………404 Appendix 2: Gazetteer of Omitted Sites……………………………………...422 Appendix 3: Proportional preservation of cranial bones at burial locations on Driffield Terrace vs. all other burial locations in York.....................................................................................................433 Appendix 4: Proportional preservation of post-cranial bones at burial locations on Driffield Terrace vs. all other burial locations in York.....................................................................................................437 Appendix 5: Osteological Recording Forms…………………………………459 iv List of Figures Figure 2.1 Roman Britain in 150 A. D. (Nacu, 2008). Eboracum (present day York) is marked by a yellow circle................................................22 Figure 2.2 Roof tile bearing the stamp of the Ninth Legion, found during excavations at York Railway Station. Currently on display at the Yorkshire Museum (McIntyre, 2011a) ………………………......25 Figure 2.3 The Multangular Tower, Yorkshire Museum Gardens (Pemmot, 2006)……………………………………………………………..27 Figure 2.4 Emperor Septimus Severus. (Trustees of the British Museum, 2013)……………………………………………………………..29 Figure 2.5 The Four Seasons mosaic from Toft Green (York Museums Trust, 2012)……………………………………………………………..31 Figure 2.6 Fragment of mosaic from Aldwark (York Museums Trust, 2012)……………………………………………………………..31 Figure 2.7 Statue of the Emperor Constantine, located outside York Minster, erected in 1998 (York Civic Trust, 2012)………………………..32 Figure 2.8 Political divisions in fourth century Roman Britain (Nash Ford, 2003)..............................................................................................34 Figure 2.9 The “Ivory Bangle Lady” and her associated grave goods (Imagemakers, 2012)……………………………………………..32 Figure 2.10 Known Roman burial areas at Eboracum (Müldner et al., 2011, after Ottaway, 2004)……………………………………………..45 Figure 2.11 Cinerary urn above earlier inhumation burial SK 201, Trentholme Drive (Wenham, 1968: Plate 5b)………………………………...49 Figure 3.1 The total study area……………………………………………....60 Figure 3.2 Locations of sites utilised in this study (Close proximity of some sites in combination with the map scale may have led to some sites overlapping)……………………………………………………...62 Figure 3.3 Settlement distribution map……………………………………...67 v Figure 4.1 Male and female stature at York and all comparative towns..….115 Figure 4.2 Sex ratios at York and all comparative towns…………………..118 Figure