Haddon, Rosalind Anne Wade (2011) Fourteenth century fine glazed wares produced in the Iranian world, and comparisons with contemporary ones fromthe Golden Horde and Mamlūk Syria/Egypt. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/14697 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. 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FOURTEENTH CENTURY FINE GLAZED WARES PRODUCED IN THE IRANIAN WORLD,1 AND COMPARISONS WITH CONTEMPORARY ONES FROM THE GOLDEN HORDE AND MAMLŪK SYRIA/EGYPT Rosalind Anne Wade Haddon Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD in September 2011 Department of Art and Archaeology School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 1 This includes present-day Iraq. 1 2 Abstract: Fourteenth century glazed finewares produced in the Iranian world and comparisons with contemporary ones from the Golden Horde and Mamlūk Syria/Egypt This thesis explores the designs and influences on fine tablewares manufactured in Īlkhānid Iran, the Jochid or Golden Horde territories and Mamlūk Syria/Egypt, and it attempts to identify the differences between them, drawing on archaeological evidence wheresoever possible. Despite the pioneering work of Gerald Reitlinger and colleagues from the early 1930s, and many others, much of our knowledge has been dealer derived. Politics and international disagreements have played a large part in frustrating the pursuit of scientific excavations and disseminating knowledge. Information from the former Soviet Union, where most of the Golden Horde sites are located, was difficult to acquire until relatively recently. Fortunately the power of the internet and the relative ease of travel have greatly facilitated such a study in the twenty-first century. The first volume of this thesis is divided into seven sections: Chapter 1 is the introduction; Chapter 2 explores the history and sources which throw some light on the economic activity of the Īlkhānids and their trading contacts with the other states; Chapter 3 presents the Īlkhānid archaeological evidence; Chapter 4 lists the Golden Horde and Mamlūk archaeological evidence; Chapter 5 defines the diagnostic shapes, materials and decorative motifs which are used to identify these differences; Chapter 6 discusses the limited knowledge of production, organisation and utility; and Chapter 7 presents the conclusions. Figures illustrating these chapters follow the text of each one. The second volume is a catalogue of all the different types under discussion, redefining these groups based on previous publications in the light of recent archaeological discoveries 3 and two appendices: A is an illustrated list of specific motifs; B is a commentary on some of the extremes of scientific analyses. This research is on-going and subject to revisions and adjustments with each new discovery; it would be foolish to think otherwise. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS VOLUME 1 LIST OF MAPS, PLANS AND TABLE 17 LIST OF FIGURES - these follow each chapter 17 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 24 A NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION AND DATING 26 ABBREVIATIONS FOR JOURNALS AND FREQUENTLY USED TEXTS 27 ABBREVIATIONS FOR INSTITUTIONS 28 GLOSSARY 29 MAPS 31 PLANS 37 1. INTRODUCTION 42 1.1. The Topic 42 1.2. Other Collections 44 1.3. Materials 45 1.4. Archaeological Excavations 47 1.5. Previous Studies 48 1.6. Comparisons with Contemporary Products in the Golden Horde and Mamlūk Territories 50 1.7. Scientific Aids for Body Analysis 51 1.8. The Problem 53 1.9. Written Sources 55 1.10. The Craftsmen and their Trade 57 1.11. Inscriptions on Tiles and Pots 58 5 1.12. Imitations and Archaeology 59 1.13. Dating 60 1.14. Contemporary Tile Production 62 1.15. Production Centres 63 1.16. Proposed Corpus 64 1.17. The Question of Uniformity 65 1.18. Conclusion 66 1.19. Figures 67 2. HISTORY AND THE SOURCES 69 2.1. Introduction 69 2.2. Methodology 70 2.3. Geography 70 2.4. Common Links – Textiles and Paper 71 2.5. The Mongols 72 2.6. Contemporary Sources 73 2.7. Coinage and Waqfiyyāt as Additional Sources of Information 74 2.8. Islam and the Īlkhāns 75 2.9. Mongol Rule 76 2.10. Civil Administration 79 2.11. Anatolia and the Īlkhānids 80 2.12. The Successors to Īlkhānid Rule 81 2.12.1. Khurasan 82 2.12.2. Īnjūids 84 2.12.3. Muẓaffarids 85 2.12.4. Jalāyirids 87 6 2.13. Conclusion 89 3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE IN IRAN 91 3.1. Introduction 91 3.2. Establishment of an Antiquities’ Service 92 3.3. Current Situation under ICHTO 94 3.4. Focus of Study 94 3.5. Ardabīl 96 3.5.1. The Shrine of Shaykh Ṣafī 96 3.6. Azarbayjan 100 3.6.1. Basṭām (Urartu) 100 3.6.2. Ḥasanlū Tepeh 100 3.6.3. Marāgheh 103 3.6.4. Tabriz 105 3.6.4.1. The Blue Mosque 105 3.6.4.2. Mesjid-i ʿAlī Shāh 106 3.6.4.3. Rabʿ-i Rashīdī 107 3.6. 5. Takht-i Sulaymān 107 3.7. Fārs 111 3.7.1. Hormūz 111 3.7.2. Qays (Kīsh) 112 3.7.3. Qaṣr-i Abū Nasīr 113 3.7.4. Sīrāf 114 3.8. Gīlān 114 3.8.1. Samirān 114 3.9. Gūlistān/Mazandarān 115 7 3.9.1. Tammishe 115 3.9.2. Jurjān 115 3.9.3. Current Projects 116 3.9.4. Shāh Tepeh 116 3.9.5. Turāng Tepeh 117 3.10. Isfahan 117 3.10.1. Friday Mosque 117 3.10.2. Kashan 118 3.11. Kirmanshāh 118 3.11.1. Bīsūtūn 118 3.11.2. Kangavār 119 3.12. Kirmān 119 3.12.1. Dasht-i Deh 119 3.12.2. Ghubayrā 121 3.13. Khurasan 122 3.13.1. Aq Qalā 122 3.12.2. Atrek Valley 123 3.13.3. Bīrjand 124 3.13.4. Faryūmad 124 3.13.5. Hydraulic Structures 125 3.13.6. Khosroshīr 125 3.13.7. Nishapur 126 3.13.8. Sarakhs 127 3.13.9. Shahr-i Bilqīṣ, Isfarāʾīn 127 3.13.10 Ṭūs 128 8 3.14. Markazī 129 3.14.1. Āveh 129 3.14.2. Sāveh 130 3.15. Sīstān 130 3.16. Zanjān 131 3.16.1. Sulṭāniyya 131 3.16.2. Tepeh Nārgeh 135 3.17. Sites in Present Day Iraq 135 3.17.1. ͑Āna 135 3.17.2. Harbā 136 3.17.3. Kish 136 3.17.4. Nippur 138 3.17.5. Tell Abū Ṣkhayr, al-Daura, Baghdad 138 3.17.6. Wāsiṭ 139 3.18. Sites in Present Day Turkey 140 3.19. Conclusion 141 3.10. Figures 142 4. COMPARATIVE MATERIAL FROM IRAN’S NEIGHBOURS 149 4.1. Introduction 149 4.2. Golden Horde 150 4.2.1. Selitryonnoye 152 4.2.2. Tsarevo 153 4. 2.3. Vodyanskoye 153 4. 2.4. Ukek 153 4. 2.5. Bolgary 153 9 4. 2.6. Bilyar 154 4.3. Golden Horde Black Sea Sites 154 4.3.1. Azov – Azak – Tana 154 4.3.2. Stary Krym – Solkhat 155 4.4. Golden Horde Kazakh Sites 155 4.4.1. Jayik Settlement 155 4.4.2. Saraichik 156 4.5. Golden Horde Khwārazm Sites 156 4.5.1. Kunya Ürgench 156 4.5.2. Mizdakhkan 158 4.5.3. Shemakha Kala (Шемаҳа-Қала) 159 4.5.4. Pulzhaj 160 4.5.5. Conclusion 161 4.6. Arabian/Persian Gulf Sites 161 4.6.1. Bahrain 161 4.6.2. Julfar – al-Maṭāf, Ras al-Khaimah 162 4.7. The Mamlūk World – Egypt 162 4.7.1. Alexandria 162 4.7.2. Cairo/Fusṭāṭ 163 4.7.3. Quseir Qadim 166 4.7.4. al-Ṭūr 166 4.8. Mamlūk Greater Syria or Bilād al-Sham 166 4.8.1. West Bank and Israel 167 4.8.1.1. Acre / ͑Akko/ ͑Akkā 167 4.8.1.2. Jerusalem 168 10 4.8.1.3. Ṣafad 168 4.8.2. Jordan 170 4.8.2.1. Aqaba/Ayla 170 4.8.2.2. Ḥisbān 171 4.8.2.3. Karak 171 4.8.3. Lebanon 173 4.8.3.1. Beirut 173 4.8.3.2. Tripoli 174 4.8.3.3. Ba ͑ albakk 175 4.8.4. Syria 176 4.8.4.1. Aleppo 176 4.8.4.2. Buṣrā 177 4.8.4.3. Damascus 178 4.8.4.4. Ḥamā 179 4.8.4.5. Ḥimṣ 179 4.8.4.6. Palmyra, Qal ͑ at Ja ͑ bar and al-Raḥba 179 4.8.4.7. Shayzar 181 4.8.4.8. Barīd Posts 181 4.9. Archaeological Finds that Indicate Trade Contacts and Sites that Reflect the Breadth of Medieval Trade 182 4.9.1. Novgorod 182 4.9.2. Moscow 183 4.9.3. Ryazan 184 4.9.4. Avignon and Neighbouring Centres 184 4.9.5. Venice and Genoa 184 4.9.6. London 186 11 4.10. Conclusion 186 4.11 Figures 188 5. DIAGNOSTIC SHAPES AND MATERIALS: ĪKHĀNID, GOLDEN HORDE AND MAMLŪK 193 5.1. Introduction 193 5.2. Medieval Understanding of the Technology 194 5.2.1. The Meaning of the word ‘Ṣīnī’ 196 5.2.2.