GEOGRAPHIES OF LAND RESTITUTION IN NORTHERN LIMPOPO: PLACE, TERRITORY, AND CLASS Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Alistair Fraser M.A. ******* The Ohio State University 2006 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Kevin R. Cox, Adviser Professor Nancy Ettlinger _____________________ Professor Larry Brown Adviser Geography Graduate Program Professor Franco Barchiesi Copyright by Alistair Fraser 2006 ABSTRACT This dissertation is concerned with the politics and geography of land restitution in northern Limpopo province, South Africa. Restitution is one of three main elements in South Africa’s land reform program, which began in the mid 1990s and is still ongoing. There is a dearth of research on how the government has pursued restitution in northern Limpopo. Little is known about how claims for restitution have been completed; how and why those involved – ranging from white farmers and restitution claimants to government officials – have negotiated the program; or what will be the outcomes of restitution in the research area. Geographers, moreover, have contributed very little to the literature on restitution as a whole. Using qualitative research methods conducted during nine months of fieldwork in northern Limpopo, and examining the program with concepts of place, territory and class in mind, this dissertation addresses some of the shortcomings of the restitution literature. It details three main findings. First, that the government has pursued imaginative, innovative, yet ultimately authoritarian solutions to the challenge of transferring expensive commercial farmland to the rightful owners. The government has drawn upon ii the resources and technical expertise of white-owned agribusinesses, whose interest in restitution, although still unclear, is certainly driven by a desire to profit from the situation. Second, that many of the white farmers opposing restitution by refusing to sell their farms, do so as a direct result of their class position; that is, as members of the petty bourgeois, they experience restitution differently from the agribusinesses allied with the government. They construct essentialist, racist spatial imaginaries to defend their interests in staying on the land; explain that restitution is doomed to fail; and affect the overall process by standing in the way of the government’s plan. Third, members of one of the ‘communities’ claiming land in the area are far from united about how they intend to share the windfall from restitution. The Ravele claimants are scattered geographically, which has made their involvement in the political process difficult, and which appears to mean they will struggle to access their share of the income from restitution. iii Dedicated to my parents and to my brother, Gordon Fraser. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The following dissertation could not have been completed without the loving encouragement of my family. My brother, Gordon Fraser, deserves particular credit for shaping my thinking; I will never approach the ‘organic’ intellectual heights he has reached. I must thank the Department of Geography, the Mershon Center, and the Kirwan Center at The Ohio State University for the generous funding they each provided for the research. I made it to Columbus, Ohio thanks in large part to Mark Boyle in Strathclyde offering encouragement and then Larry Brown having left the door open for me. Larry also helped in numerous ways throughout my time here. Thanks are due to friends such as Roy ‘Boza’ Stewart, Sean Finke, Fanen Chiahemen, Rini Sumartojo, Senghyun Hong, Solita Rosado, Rohit Negi, Mike Chen, Jeff Johnson, Philip Hisnay and his wife, Judy, and all the Glasgow Celtic supporters in and around Columbus. Numerous people in South Africa helped me complete the fieldwork. They include everyone who works with Nkuzi Development Association; white farmers such v as Franz Prinsloo, Philip Boardman, and the Otto family; extraordinarily generous people such as Casper and Sarah Venter; and fellow doctoral researchers, Fraser ‘Geordie’ McNeill and Katherine Vincent. Fraser helped guide me through aspects of Venda culture, and introduced me to good people and happening places. I am scratching the surface of his knowledge of Venda, the place, and so I hope he approves of what I present here. Among the many people who told me about their land claims and what they hope to do with their land when it is returned, I should especially like to thank those who belong to the Ravele, Songozwi, Makatu, Rambuda, and Maelula claimant ‘communities’. Lugi and Betheul Ravele deserve especial thanks. All that remains is to thank three exceptional people. Nancy Ettlinger, who in my opinion is a scholar without equal, pushed me to think in new ways; she will have more of a lasting – and positive – impact on me than she might currently imagine. Kevin Cox always cared about my research: the proof is the countless number of hours he spent reading, discussing, and shaping my work; an impressive undertaking, which he continues to offer to students, and for which he deserves a lot of credit. Kevin took the time to visit me in Mauluma, for which I am grateful. He also edited, queried, and helped develop the ideas researched in the field and presented in the dissertation. So, to Kevin: many thanks! Finally, but certainly by no means least, Veronica Crossa gave me love and a maelstrom of shared experiences that I will always value. I was inspired by her in more vi ways than she might imagine. I also have learned enormously from Veronica and have been privileged to share her determination to always keep issues of social justice in mind when thinking esoterically about space! Of course, I alone am responsible for any errors in what follows. vii VITA May 6, 1974 ....................................................... Born – Kilwinning, Scotland. 1999.................................................................... B.A. (Hons) Geography, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, Scotland. 2001.................................................................... M.A. Geography, The Ohio State University. 2001 – present.................................................... Graduate Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University. PUBLICATIONS 1. With Paul Robbins. 2003. “A Forest of Contradictions: Producing the Landscapes of the Scottish Highlands.” Antipode. Vol. 35(1) FIELDS OF STUDY Major field: Geography viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ...........................................................................................................................ii Dedication........................................................................................................................iv Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................v Vita...................................................................................................................................viii List of Tables ...................................................................................................................xii List of Figures..................................................................................................................xiii Chapters: 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Overview of the research .............................................................................. 1 1.1.2 Designing the land reform agenda .................................................. 3 1.1.3 Restitution in Northern Limpopo.................................................... 7 1.2 Research strategy ........................................................................................... 13 1.3 Plan of the dissertation................................................................................... 18 2. The land question in South Africa ....................................................................... 22 2.1 Context: The agrarian question, the land question......................................... 22 2.2 The agents and their stakes ............................................................................ 29 2.2.1 Africans........................................................................................... 29 2.2.2 The white farmers ........................................................................... 33 2.2.3 The government .............................................................................. 37 2.3 Constructing the land question in South Africa............................................. 42 2.3.1 Primitive accumulation ................................................................... 46 2.3.2 Migrant labor and the creation of the reserves................................ 52 2.3.2.1 The migrant labor system................................................. 54 ix 2.3.2.2 The creation and expansion of native reserves ................ 58 2.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 65 3. Hybridity emergent: Geo-history, learning, and land restitution in South Africa .................................................................................................................. 67 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 67 3.2 Land reform in South Africa and the neo-liberal