MULTIDIMENSIONAL PERCEPTUAL-COGNITIVE SKILLS TRAINING REDUCES SPATIO-TEMPORAL ERRORS AND IMPROVES DYNAMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG SENIORS By RYAN J. CASERTA A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2007 © 2007 Ryan J. Caserta This dissertation is dedicated to my mother and father. Thank you for making this dream come true. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First, I thank my advisor, Dr. Christopher M. Janelle, for seeing me through the last leg of my journey. No words can express the respect I have for him as a professional and, more importantly, as a person. I also thank Dr. Robert N. Singer for his academic and life wisdom of which both have served me well throughout my time at the University of Florida. His friendship will stay with me forever. Special thanks goes to my doctoral committee, Dr. Heather Hausenblas, Dr. John Chow, and Dr. Ira Fischler, for their expertise, insight, and hard work. Finally, I thank my parents, Jean and Ron Caserta. Through their sacrifice and support, I was able to receive this Ph.D. However, they have given me the greatest gift of all – love. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1 Perceptual-Cognitive Skills Training in Military and Sport.........................................3 Situation Awareness ..............................................................................................4 Anticipation and Pre-Performance Cues ...............................................................7 Multidimensional Approach..................................................................................9 Acquisition and Retention of Perceptual-Cognitive Skills in Older Athletes ............10 Cognitive Function ..............................................................................................11 Cognitive Performance........................................................................................12 Summary and Hypotheses ..........................................................................................13 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE.....................................................................................16 Theories of Perception and Action .............................................................................16 Information-Processing Approach.......................................................................17 Theory of the Perceptual Cycle ...........................................................................21 From Past to Present: Training Perceptual-Cognitive Skills ......................................24 The 1950s and 1960s...........................................................................................24 The 1980s and the Early 1990s ...........................................................................27 The Late 1990s to the Present .............................................................................35 Conclusions and Future Directions.............................................................................55 3 METHOD ...................................................................................................................59 Participants .................................................................................................................59 Materials and Measures ..............................................................................................59 Video Camcorder.................................................................................................59 Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)...........................................................60 v Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT) .........................60 Posttest Questionnaire .........................................................................................63 Tennis Log...........................................................................................................63 Procedure ....................................................................................................................64 Prescreening ........................................................................................................64 Pretest ..................................................................................................................65 Experimental Treatment ......................................................................................65 Multidimensional Perceptual-Cognitive Skills Training (MPCT) ......................66 Traditional Anticipation-Only Training (AT) .....................................................69 Technique-Footwork Training (TFT)..................................................................70 Control.................................................................................................................72 Posttest.................................................................................................................72 Retention Test......................................................................................................72 Data Reduction ...........................................................................................................72 Response Speed...................................................................................................74 Response Accuracy .............................................................................................74 Performance Decision-Making............................................................................75 Statistical Analysis......................................................................................................75 Cognitive Functioning Analyses .........................................................................75 Performance Analyses.........................................................................................76 4 RESULTS...................................................................................................................78 Cognitive Functioning ................................................................................................78 Performance................................................................................................................79 5 DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................90 Perceptual-Cognitive Training and Performance Outcomes ......................................91 Effects on Cognitive Aging ........................................................................................95 Summary and Future Directions.................................................................................96 APPENDIX A MINI-MENTAL STATE EXAMINATION ............................................................101 B POSTTEST QUESTIONNAIRE..............................................................................103 C TENNIS LOG...........................................................................................................105 D SITUATION AWARENESS GLOBAL ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE................106 LIST OF REFERENCES.................................................................................................108 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...........................................................................................116 vi LIST OF TABLES Table page 1-1 Response Speed Findings...........................................................................................8 3-1 Format of Goal-Directed Task Analysis ..................................................................61 3-2 Goal-Directed Task Analysis for Singles Tennis Matches ......................................61 3-3 Final Participant Characteristics According to Group .............................................64 4-1 Pretest, Posttest, and Retention Test Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Scores on the MMSE as a Function of Cognitive Impairment ................................80 4-2 Pretest, Posttest, Retention Test, and Total Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for the Speed of Play (ms) as a Function of Training ............................81 4-3 Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for the Amount of Independent Practice as a Function of Training .........................................................................................82 4-4 Pretest, Posttest, and Retention Test Mean Scores and Standard Deviation for Measures of Perceptual-Cognitive Ability as a Function of Training .....................85 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 2-1 Neisser’s view of the perceptual cycle....................................................................22 2-2 Modification of Neisser’s view of the perceptual cycle..........................................22 2-3 Model of situation awareness in dynamic decision-making. Adapted from Endsley, M. (1995). Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems.