UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI _____________ , 20 _____ I,______________________________________________, hereby submit this as part of the requirements for the degree of: ________________________________________________ in: ________________________________________________ It is entitled: ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ Approved by: ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ Beyond the Wheelchair A thesis submitted to the Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE In the School of Architecture and Interior Design Of the College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning 2003 By Pamela Funderburg Heckel B. S. Engineering, Vanderbilt University 1974 B. S. Civil Engineering, Purdue University, 1986 Committee Chair: Professor Wolfgang F. E. Preiser Committee Member: Professor James Bradford Committee Member: Professor David G. Saile Abstract The accessibility movement has become handicapped by its success. With the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in the United States,1 the public has assumed that designating access as a civil right has solved the problem. Although civil authorities worldwide have revised building codes, they have shortsightedly focused on the removal of architectural barriers. The truth of the matter is that most people with disabilities have never used a wheelchair. Problems of accessibility have not been solved by wider doorways and gently-sloping ramps. The late Ronald Mace and others at the Center for Universal Design in Raleigh, N. C., have developed the theory of universal design to look beyond the wheelchair. 1 Ostroff, Elaine, “Universal Design: The New Paradigm,” in Universal Design Handbook, Wolfgang F. E. Preiser and Elaine Ostroff, eds., New York, McGraw-Hill, 2001, p. 1.3. By: Pamela Heckel, P.E. Graduate Student University of Cincinnati Cincinnati, OH © Copyright 2003, Pamela Funderburg Heckel Additional copies may be obtained from: Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road P. O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346 USA www.umi.com Acknowledgements I wish to thank George Fabe for the generous scholarship he awarded me to pursue this course of study. I wish to thank several authors who responded to my request for information during my research including: Annette Pedersen, Sandra Manley and Laurie Ringaert. I wish to thank Elaine Ostroff for her hospitality and encouragement during the early stages of research. Her willingness to share information made my task much easier. Through her, I was able to contact others who answered my many questions. Molly Follette Story read my first draft and offered helpful comments. Her grasp of the issues relevant to accessibility for all was an inspiration. She also gave me a comprehensive list of resources which supplemented those in the Universal Design Handbook. I commend the faculty who taught me at the University of Cincinnati, School of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, especially John Hancock who stressed the importance of scholarly writing. I thank committee members David Saile and James Bradford. Although their expertise lies in other areas, they graciously agreed to mentor me through the thesis process. Their insightful comments during the review process helped me narrow my focus. This thesis would not have been possible without the leadership of my committee chairman Wolfgang Preiser. His superior networking skills, publications and contacts gave me access to a wealth of information. I especially appreciate his careful review of multiple drafts. His encouragement meant more than he realizes. To all of you, I am extremely grateful. Pamela Heckel, P. E. Table of Contents Table of Contents............................................................................................ 1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 3 Chapter 1. What is a Disability? .................................................................. 8 Summary ................................................................................................. 16 Chapter 2. Universal Design and Accessibility ........................................ 17 Seven Principles of Universal Design..................................................... 19 Summary ................................................................................................. 25 Chapter 3. A History of Accessibility....................................................... 26 Medicine and Pharmacology 1796-2003 ................................................ 26 Demographics ......................................................................................... 29 Legislation in the United States 1944-2002............................................ 37 International Response to the ADA ........................................................ 46 United Nations...................................................................................... 46 European Charter.................................................................................. 48 Norway ................................................................................................. 48 Italy....................................................................................................... 50 Thailand................................................................................................ 50 Australia ............................................................................................... 51 Japan..................................................................................................... 52 Canada.................................................................................................. 53 Summary ................................................................................................. 54 Chapter 4. How the Experts Define Universal Design.............................. 58 The Guimaraes Scale .............................................................................. 61 Other Expert Opinions ............................................................................ 64 Summary ................................................................................................. 67 Chapter 5. Universal Design and Urban Policy......................................... 69 The Birth of the Urban Planner............................................................... 69 The Rebellion against Orthodox Modern Architecture .......................... 73 Making Urban Environments User Friendly........................................... 78 Change Attitudes.................................................................................. 78 Remove Physical Barriers.................................................................... 84 Improve Safety ..................................................................................... 97 Summary ................................................................................................. 98 Chapter 6. Universal Design for Private Spaces..................................... 100 Aging in Place....................................................................................... 104 Group Living Arrangements ................................................................. 107 1 Private Residences ................................................................................ 109 Housing Guidelines............................................................................ 111 Bathrooms .......................................................................................... 115 Kitchens.............................................................................................. 118 Summary ............................................................................................... 120 Chapter 7. The Future of Universal Design............................................. 122 Educating the Next Generation............................................................. 122 Testing Universal Design...................................................................... 134 Summary ............................................................................................... 139 References................................................................................................... 143 Appendix A – Acronyms ......................................................................... 158 2 Introduction The purpose of this thesis is to identify those factors which contribute to the viability of the concept of universal design and make it relevant for architects today. The first chapter examines the issue of disability. There are important distinctions which need to be made between the root cause of a disability and the manifestation of disability. Designers must carefully define the problem they are attempting to solve, otherwise they may solve a different problem. In Chapter 2, the difference between accessibility and universal design is explored. Architects and designers who adhere to the principles of universal design realize that everyone experiences some sort of functional limitation at one time or another. They attempt to build enabling environments which permit more people to live independently, and longer. Although