The Beasts of Battle Associative connections of the wolf, raven and eagle in Old English poetry Hugo Edward Britt Submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2014 School of Culture and Communication Faculty of Arts The University of Melbourne Produced on archival quality paper Abstract The term ‘Beasts of Battle’ refers to the scavenging wolf, raven and eagle that appear after or in anticipation of armed conflict in Old English poetry. This thesis argues that the beasts carry with them a body of associations that would have been strongly apparent to an Anglo-Saxon audience, with echoes of these associative connections still discernible by the contemporary reader. Various and often conflicting usages of the Beasts of Battle are examined, investigating sources, analogues and attitudes towards these three beasts both in Anglo-Saxon literature and that of associated cultures including Scandinavian, Celtic and the imported Judeo-Christian tradition. This includes a thorough analysis of the fourteen surviving Beasts of Battle passages which are then examined through the differing lenses of multiple associative connections. The analysis not only draws together but reinvigorates the ongoing debate on this topic, opening the theme up to multiple interpretations rather than seeking a single explanation for its usage, as has frequently been the case in past scholarship. A better understanding of the many possible Anglo-Saxon responses to the Beasts of Battle will lead to an improved comprehension of the significance and intended purpose of the theme’s inclusion in so many of the surviving Old English poems. ii Declaration This is to certify that: the thesis comprises only my original work towards the PhD, all translations from Old English are my own unless otherwise indicated, due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used, the thesis is fewer than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of bibliographies and appendices. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank Professor Bernard Muir for his expertise and inspiration to delve into the culture and poetic works of Anglo-Saxon England. I am very fortunate to have had access to Bernard’s immense knowledge of the field from my undergraduate days right through to the completion of this thesis under his supervision. Thank you also to Professor Stephanie Trigg for her critical reading and suggested directions for the research to take, and to John Healey and Nicholas Clifford for their assistance in proofreading and recommending some fascinating primary sources relevant to this topic. Thank you to my parents, Victoria and Michael, for instilling in me an enquiring mind and a lifelong drive to learn. Most of all, thank you to Edwina and Charlie. iv Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….......... 1 Chapter 1………………………………………………………...……………………….............. 25 Melancholy harbingers: associations with elegy and doom Chapter 2.………………………………………………………………………………………… 62 The final insult: associations with scorn and exultation Chapter 3…………………………………………………………………………………………. 90 Diabolical beasts and miraculous obedience Chapter 4.………………………………………………………………………………………… 119 Raven-gladdeners: the Norse and Celtic Beasts of Battle Chapter 5…...……………………………………………………………………………………... 154 Wulf on wealda: denizens of the wild Conclusion.....……………………………………………………………………………………… 177 Works consulted………………………………………………………………………………….. 190 Appendix A………………………………………………………………………………………... 212 Abbreviations Appendix B………………………………………………………………………………………... 213 The Beasts of Battle passages v Introduction In the wake of an army, the dark raven, the dewy-plumaged eagle and the wolf of the forest, eager for slaughter and carrion, give voice to their joy.1 If we can wrest our attention from the fascinating human drama at the centre of Old English poetry, we notice that there are a host of animals prowling around the edges of the narratives. One group of animals appears so frequently and under such similar circumstances that they cannot be ignored and have excited discussion and debate among readers of Old English. They are the so-called ‘Beasts of Battle’; the raven, eagle and wolf that appear in anticipation of or after a slaughter in those Old English poems that deal with the subject of battle.2 The appearances of these beasts, whether in their role as Beasts of Battle or in other contexts, carry with them a host of implications. For modern readers these implications can be elusive, but would most likely have resonated strongly with the scops’ (poets’) contemporary audiences.3 Pettitt stresses the importance of a knowledge of Old English sources and analogues when attempting to properly appreciate a poem. He writes of Beowulf: … the fact is that when we become familiar with certain aspects of the narratives from which Beowulf and its analogues are derived, our response to Beowulf is altered, and, assuming that those narratives were traditional and widely known, we may take it that our new response is closer to that of the original audience of the poem, and closer to that intended by the poet … we have the opportunity not only of enriching our appreciation of Beowulf, but of making that appreciation more accurate in medieval terms: a vital factor in connection with a literary work about which we otherwise know so little.4 This thesis applies the above concept to the appreciation of the Beasts of Battle theme and examines the inferences or associations created by the beasts’ sources and analogues that are likely to have been recognised by an Anglo-Saxon audience. 1 Summary of the Beasts of Battle theme, from Mark Griffith, ‘Convention and Originality in the Old English “Beasts of Battle” Typescene’, ASE 22 (1993): 184. 2 See Appendix B (p.213) for a full list of the Beasts of Battle passages used in this thesis. 3 The word scop is used throughout this thesis to reflect the poems’ performative aspect and the Beasts of Battle themes’ pre-literate roots. See pp.12–15 for a discussion of orality versus literacy. 4 Thomas Pettitt, ‘Beowulf: The Mark of the Beast and the Balance of Frenzy’, NM 77 (1976): 527. Pettitt expands further upon this idea: ‘… the inferences are both substantiated and enriched by checking them against the analogues … which have by chance survived to us. In so doing we may bring ourselves closer to the minds of the Anglo-Saxon audience of the poem, and thereby be in a better position to appreciate what the poet intended, and the way he went about expressing it.’ Ibid., 535. 1 In his discussion of early Germanic animal imagery, Glosecki makes a number of observations that also ring true for the portrayal of beasts in Old English literature. He writes that Germanic animals: … move across a spectrum of possible implications. Scholars in general have been too eager to narrow this spectrum. We should rather be expanding the possibilities for likely referents of these animal signs that have been left over from the Iron Age.5 This thesis also explores the extent to which the ‘spectrum of possible implications’ has been narrowed in the scholarly debate around the theme of the Beasts of Battle, arguing that the development of oral-formulaic theory and its application to the theme has served to constrain rather than widen the discussion around these animals. As Glosecki writes, ‘…we need to give these beasts wider range to roam’.6 Importance of this topic and original contributions to research This is an important piece of research for a number of reasons. Firstly, the study of the Beasts of Battle theme has been neglected by scholars when compared with the significant amount of scholarship around the human protagonists of Old English battle poetry.7 No researcher has amalgamated the body of Beasts of Battle scholarship on this scale, nor have the beasts been examined through the speculative lens of differing conceivable audience reactions, thus moving towards a better understanding of the intention of the scops. Another unique contribution to scholarship in this area is the examination of the beasts through five main associative areas, as reflected in the chapter headings and detailed in the methodology section below – associations with doom and elegy, scorn and victory, Christian influences / interpretations, cross-cultural usages and influences, and lastly, an association with the fear of the wild. Scholarly discussion of the scops’ use of these creatures has mainly been driven by the interest and debate concerning oral-formulaic theory, in which this theme plays an important part.8 The comparatively narrow scope of the chosen topic allows for more detailed analysis and 5 Stephen Glosecki, ‘Movable Beasts: The Manifold Implications of Early Germanic Animal Imagery’, in Nina Flores, ed., Animals in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays (New York & London: Garland Publishing, 1996), 13. 6 Ibid., 14. 7 Not only human protagonists, but monsters such as Grendel have also received significantly more scholarly attention than the everyday wolf, raven and eagle. 8 Debate has typically centred around whether the beasts, as an example of oral-formulism, are ornamental or integral to the narrative. A similar focus has been on creative versus conventional usages of the theme within the formulaic confines – this discussion is revisited and expanded upon in chapter one. 2 understanding of the use and purpose of the Beasts of Battle theme, examined on its own merit rather than merely highlighted as a prime example of oral-formulaic composition, as has been the case in previous studies. The chief concern throughout this thesis is to reinvigorate the discussion around this theme by opening up the number of possible associative connections attributable to the three beasts. One of the purposes of this research is to question the assumption that the Anglo-Saxon response to these creatures was predominantly negative, contributing to scholarship in related disciplines such as medieval studies, folkloric studies and the burgeoning field of animal studies, in which researchers may make the mistake of supposing the negative portrayal of creatures such as the wolf in later centuries was already well-established in Anglo-Saxon England.