Settler Colonial Power and Indigenous Survival: Hockey Programs at Three Indian Residential Schools in Northwestern Ontario and Manitoba, 1929-1969 by Andrew Narraway A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2018 Andrew Narraway ii Abstract Despite the growing national interest and body of literature concerning the Indian Residential School System, there has been little acknowledgement of the history of hockey within these schools. This thesis examines the hockey programs at three Protestant-run Indian residential schools in northwestern Ontario and western Manitoba during the middle of the twentieth century. By using church and government documents, this study highlights the complex relationship between settler colonialism, sport, and Indigenous survival. It reveals that while hockey was implemented into residential school curriculum as a means of assimilation, public relations, and eventually integration, it was also a space of negotiation, entertainment, identity, and even survival for Indigenous children within these schools. Microlevel decisions and effects greatly influenced the advancement of hockey from a local-level disciplinary technique to a federally mandated aspect of Indian education. iii Acknowledgments I would first like to voice my appreciation for the guidance provided by my supervisor, Dr. Michel Hogue, in researching, writing, and editing this thesis. His gentle yet firm voice along with his knowledge of Indigenous historiography was essential to my success as a graduate student. I also wish to thank Dr. John Walsh who graciously supervised my Honour’s Thesis, which became the foundation for this project, and supported me as a young undergraduate fascinated with Canadian history and hockey. My gratitude also extends to Jean-Pierre Morin and Dr. Hugh Shewell for their comments and constructive criticisms on my thesis in its final stages. Furthermore, a gracious thank you to the administrative staff of the Department of History at Carleton University, specifically Joan White for all her help over the years. We would all be lost without her. My entire academic career would not have been possible without the love and support of my parents who fostered a safe environment for their quiet and introspective son. Furthermore, to my partner Catherine, who understands the ups and downs of writing a thesis as if she wrote one herself, thank you (or merci). Finally, I would like to dedicate this thesis to all the children who attended residential schools in Canada and never returned home the same, if they returned at all, and for all the parents who waited for them. iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................ ii Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................... iii List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................................................i Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................... 1 Historical Background ....................................................................................................................................... 5 Historiography ................................................................................................................................................... 7 Residential School Historiography ................................................................................................................ 7 Sport Historiography ................................................................................................................................... 13 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................................................... 16 Methodology .................................................................................................................................................... 21 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 23 Chapter 1: At the Junction of Discipline and Desire: Hockey, Assimilation, and Indigenous Survival at Indian Residential School, 1929 – 1955 ............................................................................................................ 25 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 25 Euro-Canadian Discipline and “Native Weakness” ......................................................................................... 28 Hockey’s Implementation as a Disciplinary Technique ................................................................................... 35 Hockey as a Space for Indigenous Survival ..................................................................................................... 43 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 2: From Residential School Rinks to Maple Leaf Gardens: Hockey’s Role in Indian Residential School Public Relations, 1945 – 1965 ................................................................................................................ 53 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 53 The Importance of Hockey and Public Relations, 1945 – 1950 ....................................................................... 56 The Sioux Lookout Black Hawks’ Tour of Southern Ontario, 1951 ................................................................ 63 Birtle Ice Carnivals, 1959 – 1964 .................................................................................................................... 75 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 82 Chapter 3: “Out of the Teepee or Bust, In Integration We Must Trust”: Integration, Hockey, and the Dismantling of the Indian Residential School System, 1950 – 1970 ............................................................... 84 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................... 84 The Evolution of Integration Policy at Birtle and Cecilia Jeffrey 1945-1951 .................................................. 87 Integrated Classrooms and Student Experience, 1951 – 1969 ......................................................................... 96 The Legacy of Integration and the Dismantlement of the IRSS, 1960-1970 ................................................. 105 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 111 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 113 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................... 116 Primary Sources ............................................................................................................................................. 116 Secondary Sources ......................................................................................................................................... 116 v List of Illustrations Image from Teepee Times, 1952………………………… ……………………………………….……….…....45 Poster for Birtle Ice Carnival, 1959 …………………………………………………………………………….80 1 Introduction The closing of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) in 2015 ushered in a new era of national interest in the Indian Residential School System (IRSS). Although the IRSS had been brought to the attention of the Canadian public before, the TRC made national headlines of the issue.1 This renewed interest in the IRSS has spurred a new debate about the nature of these schools. Indigenous and non-Indigenous people alike have criticized the narrative of residential schools in Canada by claiming that the positive influence of the schools has been neglected.2 Some individuals who support this view have been rightfully criticized for their disregard of the cultural, physical, and sexual abuse students experienced at the hands of school staff, while others believe there is a place for both positive and negative experiences in the national narrative of the IRSS.3 Canadians are still struggling to comprehend the complex and traumatic history of the IRSS which is a hindrance to the process of reconciliation. One of the most common positive experiences recounted by survivors of the IRSS is playing organized sports, especially hockey. For many survivors, including TRC commissioner Chief Wilton