INDIAN MYTHOLOGY & MUSIC Mythological references of musical instruments and vocal traditions in ancient Indian texts URMI VAZ Paper I, PG Diploma in Comparative Mythology, 2013-14 Dept. of Sanskrit, University of Mumbai 11 INTRODUCTION Music is inherent to humankind. Since the beginning of documented culture, there has been evidence of music. Music has emerged spontaneously and in parallel in all known human societies. Archeological evidence shows a continuous record of musical instruments, dating back to at least 30,000 years (D’Errico et al., 2003). Thus, music is an ancient capacity rather than the recent creation of a single intelligence. Music appears to transcend time, place, and culture. Music is ubiquitous yet mysterious in the way it manifests and perpetuates. Since music has no apparent evolutionary function, this product of ‘pure culture’ has always roused curiosity. The human capacity for music has often been attributed to higher sources, and consequently, a whole body of mythology surrounding music has been born. This paper attempts to explore the effects music and mythology have had on each other over time in India. History of Indian music The ancient Indians believed in the divine origin of music. The purest form of sound was considered equal to cosmic energy. As a result, music and religion were always closely intertwined. Classical music tradition was probably evolved from the religious poems and chants of the Vedic period. It was later codified by Bharata Muni. Indian music has developed through very complex interactions between different peoples of different races and cultures over several thousand years. 2 The following timeline traces the evolution of the musical tradition in India: Date Significant musical developments 2500 BC - 1500 BC Several musical instruments, drums and ‘dancing’ statuettes (including one of Rudra) found at Indus Valley Civilization excavations. 1500 BC - 500 BC * Arrival of Aryans, beginning of Vedic tradition, especially the rhythmic compositions and chanting of the Vedas. * Introduction of the first instruments like veena, dundubhi, tunav, talav and bhoomi-dundubhi. * Drinking of Soma-ras as part of Vedic sacrifices. * Shiksha literature where ritual and mantra became basis of music. * Guru-Shishya parampara 500BC - 200BC * Ramayana, with its rhythmic shlokas, composed * Introduction of Pathya Sangeet – educative, instructional musical tales * Mahabharata composed with ample references to music, dance and singing * Musical references in early Buddhist and Jain scriptures ¤ 200 BC - 300 AD * Mahabharata epilogue, Harivamsha, mentions Chhalikya and Hallisaka. Chhalikya was a form of ancient Indian music and Hallisaka was a dance form. * Natyashastra composed ¤ 300 AD - 600 AD * Golden age of arts – Gupta period * Composition of important Kalidasa plays * Kamasutra, with varied musical references, composed * Samaj, ghata-nibandhan and other forms of music introduced * Music mentioned in Puranas like Vayupurana, Markandeyapurana and Vishnudharmottarapurana. * Dattilam, a text about ragas, composed ¤ 600 AD - 1200 AD * Brihaddeshi, text on Indian classical music, composed * Concepts of sargam, tala and Deshi music introduced * Significant changes in 11th century Hindustani art music * Beginnings of Sufi and Persian music ¤ 1200 AD - 1700 AD * The rise of Amir Khusro’s poetry * Emergence of music forms like qawali, qalbana, qasida, naqsh and rags like Turushka, Zeelaph and Sarpada * Drupad, a genre of Hindustani Classical music, introduced * Beginning of Hindi songs like Vishnupadas, in lieu of Sanskrit ones * Rise of the Bhakti cult with devotional music about Rama and Krishna, especially Meerabai * Legendary musicians like Tansen lived and sang * Rise in popularity of 16th century court music ¤ 1700 AD onwards * This period marks the beginning of modern Indian music * Birth of musical forms like Khayal, Thumri, Tappa and formation of Gharana * Publishing of Hindustani music in English and other regional languages Scriptural references – The Vedas Music originated from chanting of Vedas from the Aryan age. The Indus Valley civilization 3 declined around the first half of the 2nd millennium BC, giving way to Vedic civilization. An important aspect of Vedic religious life was the bard-priest who composed hymns, in praise of the gods, to be sung or chanted at sacrifices. This tradition continued until a sizable body of oral religious poetry had been composed. The Rigveda came into being between 1500 BC and 500 BC. It was not committed to writing, but the text and the chanting formula were carefully handed down by word of mouth from one generation to the next, up to the present period. The poems in the Rigveda are arranged according to the priestly families who chanted and, presumably, had composed the hymns. 'Nada' the source of sound turned into Chandas. The priests chanted hymns in a musical tone with the pronunciation according to the tune. Vocalising syllables called Sthobhaksaras were added. Melody and rhythm created the music. Priests used to perform group chanting at the sacrifices. There are many legends about the origin of music. Priests chanting during a Vedic sacrifice The Yajurveda and the Samaveda were composed after the Rigveda The Yajurveda, with portions in prose, is a manual, describing the procedures to be followed in the sacrifice. The Samaveda contains hymns to be sung by those who did the chanting. It is this Veda which is specifically connected with music in India. A fourth Veda, the Atharvaveda, replete with magical chants and incantations, was accepted as a Veda considerably later and is quite unrelated to the other three. SCRIPTURAL REFERENCES A. The Vishnudharmottara Purana The Vishnudharmottara Purana (or the 4 Vishnudharmottara) is a Hindu text, encyclopedic in nature. It is considered as a supplement or appendix to the Vishnu Purana. It is included in the list of eighteen Upapuranas given in the Brihaddharma Purana. Among other things, it has chapters dedicated to grammar, metrics, lexicography, metrics, rhetoric, dramaturgy, dance, vocal and instrumental music and arts. The extant text is divided into three khandas (parts). The first khanda comprises 269 adhyayas (chapters), the second khanda comprises 183 adhyayas and the third khanda comprises 118 adhyayas. Chapter I of the third khanda deals with the origin of image making and the interdependence of arts. Chapters 2-17 deal with grammar, lexicography, metrics and rhetoric. Chapters 18-19 deal with vocal and instrumental music. Chapters 20-34 deal with dance and dramaturgy. B. The Epics Ramayana - The first Indian epic, Ramayana, was composed by the sage Valmiki. It was written in shloka form. The word shloka refers to a particular kind of metrical composition known for its brevity, easy tempo and lilting rhyme. From the lavish use of musical metaphors in the epic, it is evident that the precise concept of music or sangeet had been adequately established and appreciated. For example, when Rama describes Kishkindha, Sugreeva's kingdom, to Laxmana, he refers to the lute-like resonance of the bees, the rhythmic croaking of frogs and the mridang-like sounds of clouds. Rama was an expert in gandharva, the 'classical' music of the time. The term Marga Sangeet is also used in the epic to denote the accepted and prestigious mode of music. There were three important features of Marga Sangeet. It was created and propagated by Brahma and other deities. It was not meant for entertainment. It was presented before the Gods to please them. The epic tells us that musical instruments were collectively mentioned as atodya. Four major types of instruments were identified. A wide variety of instruments were used such as the Veena, Venu, Vansha, Shankha, Dundubhi, Bheri, Mridang, Panav and Pataha. The knowledge of music was widespread. Ravana the demon-leader was proficient in music. So was Sugreeva, the monkey-leader. Occasions of festival music were known as samaj. There were professional classes of musicians such as Bandi, Soota, Magadha and others, whose repertoire included songs in praise of heroes, their deeds, their clans or dynasties. Ramayana, as an oral epic, was also propagated according to the musical norms perfected in the oral tradition. This was the pathya mode of music making, ideal for narration. This was the form employed by Rama's sons Kush and Lava, when they sang a narrative song in Rama's praise at his court accompanied by only a lute. Even today, the story of Rama, when traditionally narrated 5 in India in different languages and regions, follows the norms laid down by the ancient Sage. The use of technical terms in popular literature signifies that knowledge in the concerned field of study is widespread in society. Musical terms such as pramana, laya, tala, samatala , kala , matra and shamya regularly feature in the epic. Mahabharata - Krishnadvaipayana Vyasa composed the epic Mahabharata in 24000 shlokas. There is less about music in the Mahabharata than in the Ramayana. Possibly human life had become more complex and problem-ridden during the time of the Mahabharata, leaving less time for music. Mahabharata used the term gandharva instead of sangeet. The epic, therefore, referred to a more specific kind of music. Musicology, or the science of music was called Gandharvashastra. Superhuman beings called Gandharvas were the expert practitioners of this music. Both gandharvas and their consorts, the apsaras‚ were experts in singing, playing musical instruments and dancing. Arjuna, one of the heroes in the Mahabharata had learnt these musical arts from Chitrasen gandharva. Kings maintained their own music schools to train princesses and their maids-in-waiting in the performing arts. The names of the seven basic musical notes (shadja) have been clearly mentioned in the Mahabharata, which was composed around 400 BC. The epic therefore bears testimony to the long living tradition of Indian Classical music. The use of music in festivals and other social occasions brings out the importance given to music in human life. There were, in fact, many classes of professional musicians like the 6 gandharvas who catered to various musical and cultural needs.