Florida International University FIU Digital Commons FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations University Graduate School 3-24-2015 Examining Perspectives On China's Near- Monopoly Of Rare Earths Gregory J. Bryant Florida International University, [email protected] DOI: 10.25148/etd.FI15032141 Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd Part of the Chinese Studies Commons Recommended Citation Bryant, Gregory J., "Examining Perspectives On China's Near-Monopoly Of Rare Earths" (2015). FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 1845. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/1845 This work is brought to you for free and open access by the University Graduate School at FIU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of FIU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FLORIDA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY Miami, Florida EXAMINING PERSPECTIVES ON CHINA’S NEAR-MONOPOLY OF RARE EARTHS A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in ASIAN STUDIES by Gregory J. Bryant 2015 To: Dean Michael R. Heithaus College of Arts and Sciences This thesis, written by Gregory J. Bryant, and entitled Examining Perspectives on China’s Near-Monopoly of Rare Earths, having been approved in respect to style and intellectual content, is referred to you for judgment. We have read this thesis and recommend that it be approved. _______________________________________ Steven Heine _______________________________________ Jin Zeng _______________________________________ Thomas Breslin, Major Professor Date of Defense: March 24, 2015 The thesis of Gregory J. Bryant is approved. _______________________________________ Dean Michael R. Heithaus College of Arts and Sciences _______________________________________ Dean Lakshmi N. Reddi University Graduate School Florida International University, 2015 ii © Copyright 2015 by Gregory J. Bryant All rights reserved. iii DEDICATION To Jingyun: my wife, lover, companion, inspiration. Because of you, this thesis has meaning. To my parents, Kevin and Sherlyn: for your unfailing support and encouragement. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I hereby give my deepest appreciation to Dr. Thomas Breslin, Dr. Steven Heine, and Dr. Jin (Julie) Zeng for your expertise, guidance, insight, helpful criticism, and heartfelt support for me during the entire process of writing this thesis. I have gained perspectives of irreplaceable value through our many conversations and email correspondences. Over the last few months, I have learned much about China’s rare earths industry, but more importantly, with your direction, I have acquired more efficient methods of analysis and more comprehensive research techniques. Through it all, your scholarly integrity has given me living testimony of the meaning of the old phrase made famous by Deng Xiaoping: “Seek truth from the facts” (实事求是). I would also like to acknowledge the guidance and inspiration gained from the following individuals. Dr. Eric Messersmith: Thank you for giving me insight into the recent history of Japan. Dr. Matt Marr: Thank you for your lively representation of modern Japan’s social structure and current challenges. To Zenel Garcia, David Dayton, and Randy Tallent—colleagues and friends: Whether in or out of class, our conversations have always been edifying; thank you for your inspiration. Also, many thanks to the Asian Studies staff, María Sol Echarren and Kimberly Zwez for your constant and consistent help in processing all manner of paperwork. v ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS EXAMINING PERSPECTIVES ON CHINA’S NEAR-MONOPOLY OF RARE EARTHS by Gregory J. Bryant Florida International University, 2015 Miami, Florida Professor Thomas Breslin, Major Professor China’s behavior as a near-monopolist of rare earths has come under increasing scrutiny in recent years. This thesis first examines the underlying causes behind China’s rise to the status of rare-earths near-monopolist, including government support; lax environmental controls; unregulated production; and relatively low costs compared to the rest of the world. Second, the thesis also examines the preeminent international and domestic factors influencing China’s behavior as a near-monopolist of rare earths. International factors include international demand; international trade pressure; international price-setting authority issues; and geopolitical factors. I next identify domestic factors that exert influence over China’s rare earths-related behavior: environmental protection; rare earth resource protection; rare earths industry regulation; and protecting and aiding China’s domestic rare earths industry. The study concludes with a synthesis of the factors influencing China’s rare-earths-related behavior in the overall context of support and direction by China’s Central Government. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………... Error! Bookmark not defined. Research Questions……………………………………………………………………………......2 Findings………………………………………………………………………………... 3 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………… 5 CHAPTER 1: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF WORLD RARE EARTHS PRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………… 6 What Are Rare Earths Elements?.................................................................................... 7 Rare Earths Production Around the World…………………………………………… 10 Rare Earths Production in China………………………………………………………12 Government Support………………………………………………………………….. 18 World Rare Earths Production Data………………………………………………….. 21 China’s Rare Earths Production Data………………………………………………… 27 CHAPTER 2: CHINA'S PATH TO NEAR-MONOPOLY OF RARE EARTHS……….40 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 40 (1) Government Support……………………………………………………………… 41 (2) Environmental Factors……………………………………………………………. 46 (3) Illegal Mining of Rare Earths……………………………………………………... 56 (4) Low Costs of Rare Earths Production…………………………………………….. 61 CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL FACTORS INFLUENCING CHINA'S BEHAVIOR AS NEAR-MONOPOLIST OF RARE EARTHS………………………... 66 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 66 (1) International Demand……………………………………………………………... 67 (2) Trade Conformity Pressure……………………………………………………….. 70 (3) Rare earths pricing………………………………………………………………... 76 (4) Geopolitical factors such as relations with Japan………………………………….80 CHAPTER 4: DOMESTIC FACTORS INFLUENCING CHINA'S BEHAVIOR AS NEAR-MONOPOLIST OF RARE EARTHS…………………………………………... 85 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 85 (1) Environmental Protection………………………………………………………….86 (2) Rare Earth Resource Protection…………………………………………………... 92 (3) Strengthening Rare Earths Industry Regulation…………………………………... 97 vii (4) Protecting and Aiding China’s Domestic Rare Earths Industry………………….101 CHAPTER 5: TOWARD A SYNTHETIC UNDERSTANDING OF INTERNA- TIONAL AND DOMESTIC FACTORS INFLUENCING CHINA'S BEHAVIOR AS A NEAR-MONOPOLIST OF RARE EARTHS…………………………………... 105 Introduction………………………………………………………………………….. 105 International Factors………………………………………………………………… 107 Domestic Factors……………………………………………………………………. 117 The Overarching Role of the Chinese Government………………………………….122 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………… 128 APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………….. 148 viii INTRODUCTION In September, 2010, China and Japan were diplomatically at each other’s throats, again. The issue of dispute was the collection of rocky atolls known on the Chinese Mainland as the “Diaoyudao islands” (钓鱼岛及其附属岛屿), the “Diaoyutai islands” (釣魚臺列嶼) in Taiwan, and the “Senkaku islands” (尖閣諸島) in Japan. The Chinese trawler “Minjinyu 5179” (闽晋渔 5179) had rammed Japanese coast guard vessels in waters surrounding the disputed islands (an event known as the “2010 Senkaku boat collision incident” or the “Minjinyu 5179 incident”), setting off a small-scale diplomatic crisis. The Japanese coast guard authorities detained the Chinese trawler captain, Zhan Qixiong (詹其雄) and his crew. China responded by cancelling all Sino-Japanese meetings of a ministerial level and above. The diplomatic spat ended in defeat for the Japanese when the Japanese authorities returned captain Zhan to China. The Chinese people, some of whom had taken to the streets in protest on behalf of the “inalienable territory” of the Diaoyu islands, rejoiced at the diplomatic victory; in Japan, leaders were criticized for a weak handling of the crisis. Though the Chinese government has never directly admitted to its truthfulness, it was widely reported that the key factor leading to the eventual diplomatic defeat of Japan was China’s administrative “embargo” of rare earths exports to Japan. Rare earths, the so-called vitamins of modern technology, are mineral elements critical to the production of much of Japan’s array of high-tech products, from small electronics to hybrid and electric automobiles. Japan was (and still is, although not to such an extent) highly 1 dependent on cheap rare earths elements from China to fuel its high-tech industry. Thus, China’s de facto embargo caught the attention of Japanese leaders—fast—eventually pressuring Japan into capitulating to China’s demands for the release of the trawler skipper, Mr. Zhan. Or so the story goes according to major Western media such as The New York Times (Bradsher, 2010). Literally overnight, the eyes of the world honed in on a group of little-heard-of elements, the so-called “rare earths”. Regardless of whether or not China actually imposed an embargo on the export of rare earths to Japan, the fact that China, which at the time produced over 90% of the world’s rare earths,