The Governance of Waste in Iqaluit, Nunavut By Alexander Richard Duane Zahara A thesis submitted to the Graduate Program in Environmental Studies in conformity of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Environmental Studies Queen’s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada August 2015 Copyright © Alexander Richard Duane Zahara, 2015 Abstract Through ethnographic fieldwork and archival research, this thesis examines the historical and contemporary governing practices that inform waste management in Iqaluit, Nunavut. I draw on governance theory to critically examine the diffuse network of power that influences waste management practices and outcomes, and that have contributed to the city’s waste issues. Like other communities in Canada’s Nunavut territory, Iqaluit lacks sophisticated technologies to manage waste and abandoned dump sites are littered throughout the city’s landscape. Across the territory communities are concerned about their waste future. This case study of waste governance is divided into three parts. In part one, waste is examined within the wider context of colonialism and contemporary neoliberal governance practices that have contributed to what scholars are referring to as the Anthropocene. It is argued that waste itself is part of a colonial context within which Inuit and other northerners continue to live. In part two, two of Iqaluit’s ‘trash animals’-- ravens and dogs-- are examined to highlight the role of nonhumans in waste governance. It is argued that waste materially reconfigures relationships between human and nonhuman animals, and that these relationships are bequeathed to future generations. In part three, I examine the 2014 Iqaluit ‘dumpcano’ controversy, which coincided with my field season in Iqaluit. The dump fire brought to the fore a history of contaminant exposure and federal government underfunding that was differently framed and responded to by community members and government officials; while government risk management practices privileged neoliberal epistemologies and governance, active participation by Iqaluit residents placed community understandings of health, wellbeing, and sovereignty at the forefront of the ‘dumpcano’ debate. Within the context of myriad social and environmental issues, increased community growth and development, and Inuit efforts to self-determine, I ii suggest that improvements to Iqaluit’s waste management infrastructure should integrate supports to Inuit culture and knowledge systems. Doing so involves replacing a technical configuration of waste with one of knowing, being, and relating to others and the environment; and would help meet community goals and definitions for sustainable community development. iii Co-Authorship Statement Chapters 2 and 3: This study was initiated by Dr. Myra J. Hird as part of the Canada’s Waste Flow research project. Preliminary consultations and fieldwork were conducted by Dr. Hird in October 2013, who returned in August 2014. Alex Zahara conducted fieldwork in Iqaluit from June 2nd- September 6th, 2014 and archival research throughout the duration of his degree. Data analysis and interpretation were conducted by Alex Zahara under the supervision of Dr. Hird. Chapters 2 and 3 were co-written with Dr. Hird. Both Alex Zahara and Dr. Hird were responsible for revising and editing these papers, which includes addressing reviewer feedback. Chapter 2 has been accepted in the edited collection Anthropocene Feminism (Hird and Zahara, forthcoming). Chapter 3 has been accepted in the journal Environmental Humanities (Zahara and Hird, forthcoming). Works Cited Hird, M. J. & Zahara, A. R. D. Forthcoming. ‘The Arctic Wastes’ in Grusin, R. (ed) Anthropocene Feminism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Zahara, A. R. D. & Hird, M. J. Forthcoming. ‘Raven, Dog, Human: Inhuman Colonialism and Unsettling Cosmologies.’ Special issue of Environmental Humanities. Affrica Taylor and Veronica Pacini-Ketchabaw (eds.) iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank the community of Iqaluit for allowing me to conduct this research project and for always being patient with me. This thesis is dedicated to you. A tremendous thanks goes to Dr. Myra J. Hird who has been instrumental in making this thesis possible. Thanks to Dr. Hird for suggesting this project, for giving it so much attention, and for the many critical and helpful discussions that have made this thesis possible. Thank you for inspiring me with your ideas and for allowing me to be creative (and always material!). Thanks to my committee members, Dr. R. Kerry Rowe and Dr. Allison Rutter, and also to Dr. Alice Hovorka and Kevin West for providing feedback and advice throughout this project. I also thank Jessica Peters, Elyse Skura, Bruce Morgan, Larissa Pizzolato, Electra Skaarup, Laura Oingonn, Andrew Binet, and Emma Micalizzi for help with fieldwork and for being such great company throughout my time in Iqaluit. My memories of Iqaluit are entangled with your friendships. I also thank the Nunavut Research Institute for research guidance, logistical support, access to the NRI library, housing and Internet, barbeques at lunch, and the many other ways in which you helped me out. Thanks especially to Robyn Campbell of Sustainable Iqaluit and Jamessee Moulton from the GN’s Department of Environment for help with archival research and assistance in finding key documents that would have otherwise been impossible to access. v Cassandra Kuyvenhoven has been a constant source of friendship and support throughout this degree. I thank her and Tara Cater for many helpful discussions about Nunavut, academia, and more. Thanks also to the Canada’s Waste Flow research team and the genera Research Group at Queen’s University for sharing ideas. I thank Karen Topping and Karen Depew for administrative help and other crucial supports. Thanks also to Scott Dudiak, Kyle McKenna, Patrick LeGrand, Leanne Ejack, Makoa Rosa, Brennan Moore, Justine Zahara, the Hackl-Harpers and all my friends in the Morrissey Lab, Saskatoon, and Hilo for being far better than I at keeping in touch. Leanne Flahr, you’ve taught me perseverance-- and thank you for your constant advocacy. My parents, Terry and Rick: Dad, you are radical. Mom, you are unshakeable. Thanks for being great examples and for making this thesis seem easy. Mara, you are my number one source of support and inspiration and you always give me something to aspire to. Your diamond bones are hardier than any dump fire. I want to thank the Alianait Arts Festival for making me feel so welcome in Iqaluit. I thank Ikali and the numerous kids from the Qayaq Youth Art Group for always keeping me on my toes-- I’ve never been happier to be referred to as ‘The Garbage Man.’ This project was funded through a SSHRC Insight Grant (#435-2013-0560), SSHRC Graduate Scholarship, Ontario Graduate Scholarship, and the School of Environmental Studies at Queen’s University. vi Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………..……….…………….…..…………………..ii Co-authorship Statement ………...……….………………..………….…….…………….…...…iv Acknowledgements…………………………………………………….……….….……………...v Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………...vii List of Acronyms…………………………………………………………………….………….…x List of Figures……………………………………………………………………….…………...xii Chapter 1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..1 1.1 Context……………………………………………………………………..………………1 1.2 Research Aim, Questions and Objectives……………………………………….....………3 1.3 Theory………………………………………………………………………….…………..4 1.4 Methods: Case Study Approach………………………………………………...…………8 1.4.1 Archival Research………………………………………………...………………….9 1.4.2 Semi-Structured Interviews……………………………………………………….. 13 1.4.3 Participant Observation…………………….…………………………..…………. 15 1.4.4 Analysis………………………………………………………………………….... 17 1.5 Fieldwork…………………………………………………………..……………………. 18 1.5.1 Positioning……………………………………………………………………….....20 1.6 Works Cited…...………………………………………………………………………….25 Chapter 2 Arctic Wastes…………...…………….………………………..…………...…………33 2.1. Abstract…………………………………………………………………….…………….33 2.2. Iqaluit’s Waste………………………………………………………………..………… 34 2.3 Teaching Iqalummiut to Waste……………………………….…………………………..37 vii 2.4 And then some…………………………………………….…………………………….. 44 2.5 True North Strong and Free………………………………………………………………46 2.6 Self- Determination……………………………………..………………………………. 49 2.7 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………53 2.8 Works Cited…………………………………………………….……………………….. 55 Chapter 3 Raven, Dog, Human: Inhuman Colonialism and Unsettling Cosmologies….…..……63 3.1 Abstract………………………………………………………………..………………… 63 3.2 Introduction………….………………………...…...…………………………………….64 3.3 ‘Trash Animals’ and the North………………………………………………………….. 66 3.4 Tulugaq/Raven………………………………………………….………………………...71 3.5 Qimmiq/Sled Dog……………………………………………….………………………..76 3.6 Inhuman Colonialism…………………………………….………………………………83 3.7 Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………... 89 Chapter 4 Taima (Enough): Risk Governance in the Iqaluit ‘Dumpcano’……………………… 96 4.1 Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….. 96 4.2 Introduction………………………………………………………..……………………..97 4.3 Indigenous Governance in the Arctic………………………………….………………..101 4.4 The Deficit Model and Risk Communication …………………………………………..106 4.5 Risk Management in the Iqaluit ‘Dumpcano’…………………………………………..109 4.6 Issues of Public Meaning……………………………………………………..………... 115 4.7 Public Contestation and Arctic Sovereignty…………...………………………...…….. 119 4.8 Conclusion………………………………………...…………………………………….128 4.9 Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………. 131 Chapter 5 Conclusion…………………………………………..……………………………….148 viii 5.1 Conclusion Overview…..……………………………….……………………………..