1 Table of Contents Letter from the USAFA Dean of the Faculty 3 Office of Research Mission Statement/Contacts 4 Departments of Aeronautical Engineering 5 Departments of Astronautical Engineering 5 Department of Biology 7 Department of Chemistry 13 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering 14 Department of Computer Sciences 15 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 20 Department of Economics and Geosciences 22 Department of English and Fine Arts 23 Department of Foreign Languages 24 Department of History 28 Department of Law 36 Department of Management 38 Department of Mechanical Engineering 44 Department of Military and Strategic Studies 46 Department of Physics 48 Department of Political Science 54 DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: ALL ABSTRACTS APPEARING IN THIS PUBLICATION WERE CLEARED FOR PUBLIC RELEASE; DISTRIBUTION UNLIMITED. CONTACT THE OFFICE OF RESEARCH FOR DETAILS 2 Colorado Springs Undergraduate Research Forum Letter from the USAFA Dean of the Faculty Our state, country, and world have been through a lot in the past 12 months. While many events and activities understandably had to be canceled, one notable activity persevered amidst this great turmoil: our undergraduate education with research. Many of our academic and research activities looked different this year, but they had to continue uninterrupted. It is also fitting, that while the strains of a pandemic shed light on what is truly critical to our nation -- like research -- it is also research and science that are playing a critical role in returning our nation to normal. Last year, we had to cancel the Colorado Springs Undergraduate Research Forum (CSURF) completely, and in its place we published an abstract book of the research that cadets had planned to present at the forum. This year we were delighted to host a virtual event on 24 April. While we would have preferred to share our research with you in-person, this event was one step closer to a normal Forum. And while our cadets were able to present their research virtually, we still see value in publishing this abstract book to share with all of our partners, colleagues, and friends who could not attend the virtual event. This second annual CSURF abstract book contains summaries of 101 cadet projects representing 17 academic departments that were presented virtually during the 2020/2021 academic year. While these research projects are impressive, there is an even greater takeaway from this year’s CSURF: each of this year’s cadet presenters personally experienced the rigor of science, appreciation for empiricism, and the value of research…and they had these experiences in an austere, pandemic environment. These students will graduate and we will rely on them to lead our nation during future challenges. The skills they learned this year while conducting research will guide them. We look forward to meeting again in person for next year’s CSURF. Until then, I hope you find this abstract book informative and inspiring. From all of the faculty and staff at the United States Air Force Academy, we wish you health and safety. LINELL A. LETENDRE Brigadier General, USAF Dean of the Faculty, United States Air Force Academy 3 The USAFA Office of Research Mission Statement Execute today's research in order to develop leaders for tomorrow's battlespace. The USAFA Office of Research exists to support researchers as they develop our nation's future leaders. The Office of Research does this by enhancing cadet education, providing DoD warfighter support, opportunities for faculty development, and partnership for technology transfer. Contacts Col Chris McClernon Mr. Rick Rogers Associate Dean of Research Deputy Director of Research 719-333-4185 719-333-2847 Mr. David Blanks Mr. Sean Tucker AFRL Liason to HQ SpOC & USAFA Research Program and T3 Manager 719-333-3378 719-333-3273 Ms. Teresa Whinnery Ms. Barbara Cook Research Program Specialist Lead Budget Analyst 719-333-3978 719-333-2759 Ms. Rachael Britton Ms. Courtney Bailey Research Administrative Assistant Budget Analyst 719-333-4195 719-333-3311 Ms. Amy Berg Mr. Isaiah Santiago Research Event Coordinator Budget Analyst 719-333-3327 719-333-1951 Ms. Sandy Lamb Mr. Jonathan Dentel STEM Outreach Coordinator Budget Analyst 719-333-8990 719-333-4195 ENHANCING CADET EDUCATION DEVELOPING FUTURE PROBLEM SOLVERS PARTNERING FOR INNOVATION SOLUTIONS 4 Department of Aeronautical Engineering Quantifying Fundamental Detonation Parameters of Hydrocarbon Fuels and Nitrous Oxide C2C Noah Pritchard and C2C Ryan Johnston Faculty Mentor: Dr. Mitchell Hageman Abstract: A detonation is a combustion reaction preceded by a shock wave. The pressure increase caused by this shock wave has potential to reduce the compression work required in many modern engines. Potential near term applications include rocket engines and jet engine afterburners. Jet engine main combustors may also be replaced with detonation combustors if pressure fluctuation issues can be resolved. However, insufficient fundamental data about detonations exists and there are still many problems to work out before fielding the first practical detonation engines. The linear detonator at the U.S Air Force Academy (USAFA) has a 2.235cm x 2.235cm cross section with optical access. With this setup, detonation velocity was measured with ion probes, detonation pressure with a high speed pressure transducer, cell size with soot foils, and reactant/product concentrations using a modified FTIR. Data was collected for three hydrocarbon fuels. The pressure was found to be 20\% lower than pressures predicted by simulations for the same conditions. The source of this deficit is unknown. Detonation velocity was 2\%-3\% lower than the Chapman-Jouget velocity, which was expected due to the combustor size. Cell size for Ethane and Ethylene followed a U-shaped dependence on equivalence ratio, as expected. Fuel and oxidizer were correctly identified inside the combustor before combustion using infrared spectroscopy. Department of Astronautical Engineering Forced Relative Motion Using the Clohessy-Wiltshire Equations C1C Brendan J. Hennessey Rose Faculty Mentor: N/A Abstract: Natural relative motion trajectories for rendezvous and proximity operation (RPO) applications are well understood. Forced relative motion trajectories for RPO applications are much less developed. In this paper we present a novel method for the development and analysis of forced motion relative trajectories between two spacecraft, a target and a chaser. These trajectories are especially useful for real-world applications such as docking and servicing on orbit. This paper proposes a technique to discretize forced motion rendezvous trajectories in order to evaluate their efficiency. This method is based on Lambert Targeting in the natural relative motion space of the Clohessy-Wiltshire (CW) equations as well as the use of cubic splines to create smooth trajectories. The desired relative motion trajectory is discretized over time of flight and analyzed for required change in velocity or delta V. The method ultimately analyzes the feasibility of multiple trajectory types by comparing the required change in velocity to the actual capabilities of current spacecraft. In addition to calculating the required delta V, the tool can also output the required quaternion to point the thrust vector of the spacecraft in the direction of the required delta V. The technique is applied to several rendezvous trajectories in which a chaser spacecraft begins in a natural motion circumnavigation (NMC) of a target spacecraft. 5 Uninterrupted Earth-Mars Colony Communication Relay C2C Benjamin Bayless Faculty Mentor: Dr. Scott Dahlke Abstract: Every 13 months during Earth-Mars Solar conjunction or opposition, there are a number of days and even weeks when communication between Earth and Mars is hardly possible, and even impossible, given the current communications structure between the two planets. Outside these blackout periods, there are moments when objects on Mars’ surface may not be reached due to a lack of line-of-sight (LOS), even with several Mars orbiters currently in place. This communications structure would be unacceptable for any long-duration manned mission to the Red Planet. However, this problem may be averted with a more robust relay. By leveraging special orbits, the Sun- Mars Lagrange points, and the current communications structure, this relay guarantees constant communications with any possible human activity on Mars’ surface, no matter the orientations of the celestial bodies. We have shown this by simulating the concept’s astrodynamics in Systems Tool Kit (STK), accounting for all relevant perturbations. Mars Relay Network (MRN) 6 Department of Biology Expression of Tardigrade Damage Suppressor Protein in Escherichia Coli is Not Protective Against UV Radiation C1C Camryn M. Olhausen and 2d Lt Jonathan Ford Faculty Mentor: Dr. J. Jordan Steel Abstract: Tardigrades are microinvertebrates that are highly resistant to extreme environments. Tardigrades express a protein called Damage Suppressor Protein (DSUP) that helps protect them from high levels of radiation. The objective of this project was to investigate the protective properties of DSUP using Escherichia coli. The cDNA gene of DSUP was inserted into a pET28a expression plasmid and E. coli were transformed with the recombinant plasmid. Transformed E. coli were treated with UV light to evaluate their radiation resistance by comparing their survival rates to those of untransformed E. coli. A variety of exposure times