THESIS HIGH ALTITUDE STONE AND WOOD STRUCTURES OF NORTHWESTERN WYOMING: EXAMPLES FROM THE UPPER GREYBULL RIVER AREA IN THE CENTRAL ABSAROKA MOUNTAINS Submitted by Christopher C. Kinneer Department of Anthropology In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Fall 2007 ABSTRACT HIGH ALTITUDE STONE AND WOOD STRUCTURES OF NORTHWESTERN WYOMING: EXAMPLES FROM THE UPPER GREYBULL RIVER AREA IN THE CENTRAL ABSAROKA MOUNTAINS This thesis presents the results of archaeological investigations of seven sites with structures identified near the headwaters of the Greybull River in the Absaroka Mountains of northwestern Wyoming. These structures have in common a construction style that consists entirely of dry-laid and/or aligned locally available stone and, in some cases, wooden elements. Investigations, analyses and interpretations of high altitude stone structure sites are often framed by categorical assumptions about site and structure functions. Assumed functions often include game drives, ceremonial localities, location markers, architectural remnants, and windbreaks. These ascribed functions condition the types of data that are gathered, and thus the results of the analyses and interpretations are often self-fulfilling. No single, best, or functionally provable argument, beyond a possible association with hunting, will be provided for the newly presented sites and structures, as too little is known about the builders’ cultural and/or temporal affiliations. Rather, conclusions with respect to site and/or structure function will be oriented around pattern recognition and comparative discussion. An important goal of this thesis is to explore analytical approaches that can be employed regardless of site and/or structure functions, and to this end, three analytical approaches are considered. First, a regional comparison of sites with similar features is presented. Second, data gathered from a structure replication experiment are compared with data collected during field investigations to derive estimates of labor investment for the archaeological specimens. Third, landscape data are used to explore potential topographic signatures that might accompany sites high altitude sites with stone and wood structures. Although the functions of these structures remain unknown, the results of the research suggest that there are some baseline regional patterns in structure placement that should be further investigated. Prehistoric groups were expending energy in high elevation settings for activities that may not have been strictly iii hunting related. Finally, landscape data do show potential for exposing patterns of site placement with respect to high altitude stone and wood structures. Christopher C. Kinneer Anthropology Department Colorado State University Fort Collins, CO 80523 Fall 2007 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To say that I received an incredible amount of help with this project only scratches the surface and I am indebted and grateful to all those involved. I wish to thank James Benedict and George Frison for providing a body of literature that both catalyzed my interest and provided much of the required background information on high altitude sites with stone and wood structures. While many others have done important work in this research area, Dr. Benedict and Dr. Frison have presented by far the most published and accessible research on the topic to date. Also, James Benedict graciously provided me with a complete set of the Center for Mountain Archaeology Research Reports, and for this I am deeply thankful. Many other investigators have been important in my explorations into the subject of high altitude stone structure sites and must be mentioned; they include Steve Cassells, Dan Eakin, Judson Finley, Jeff Keahey, Marcel Kornfeld, Ann Johnson, Lewis Hutchinson, Danny Walker, and Monica Weimer. In particular, Eakin and Finley offered me assistance and information that was integral to the completion of this thesis. Without a doubt the most important person in helping me complete this project was my advisor, Larry Todd. Larry provided me with the required field resources including crews, supplies, and places to sleep while we conducted fieldwork. In the classroom he challenged me to question many of my preconceived notions, and to look towards a multidisciplinary concept of archaeological research. Larry’s infectious enthusiasm, encouragement, and guidance were central to my success with this investigation. I am honored that he allowed me to study with him. Very special thanks go to William Dooley a former native of Meeteetse, Wyoming. Mr. Dooley provided the locations of many of the sites that are the focus of this research. His knowledge of the Upper Greybull River area is vast, and when paired with an interest in “old stuff,” his assistance has become an essential asset for our research in the area. In other words, without Bill Dooley this thesis would not exist. The rest of my committee Christian Zier, Jason LaBelle, and Denis Dean have also been instrumental in my completion of this work. Chris Zier has not only helped me keep food on my table by keeping me employed during this research, he has also given me an incredible amount of help in both writing and editing this thesis. If there are any sentences in this document that actually make sense…they were probably edited by Chris. Also, I owe a great debt to Chris for allowing me to use his vast collection of v archaeological literature and sharing his personal knowledge. Jason LaBelle has given me both encouragement and excellent comments on my original draft, and provided me with direction when I felt like I was flailing. Denis Dean provided me with a reality check with regard to my applications of GIS and provided much needed feedback. I owe a lot to the faculty and staff of the Colorado State University Anthropology Department. As department chair, Kathy Galvin was always there to answer questions and showed great interest in my research. Mary Van Buren played a pivotal role in my graduate school experience by helping me become a more critical reader, and a better writer. Mara Kali and Lynn Stutheit both helped me navigate the treacherous world that is the university bureaucracy and kept me honest. Many other faculty members played a role in my graduate school success and deserve thanks, including Cal Jennings, Jeff Eighmy, Ann Magennis, and Mica Glantz. My fellow graduate students and I spent many hours drinking archaeology and talking about beers. Special thanks (in no particular order) go to Andy “the Mule” Mueller, Bill Reitze, Jeff Adams, Courtney Hurst, Allison Bohn, Paul Burnett, Cody Anderson, Jill Beckburger, Naomi Ollie, Marcy Reiser, and Terry Ritzman. Special thanks are owed to Bill Reitze for providing comments on my original draft. Over the years friends and fellow Centennial Archaeology staff members have given me lots of help with my research. Big thanks go to Steve Kalasz for providing comments and helping me to become a better archaeologist in ways to numerous to mention. Additional thanks go to Denise Zier, Mary Painter, and Bonnie Gibson for putting up with me in general. Special thanks to Mary Painter for allowing me to use her rocks and property for the structure replication experiments. Many friends have contributed to my research. In particular, Erik Gantt, Scott Slessman, and John Kennedy have served as a perfect storm of archaeological helpitude over the years. Thanks a lot wing- nuts! John gets a whole lot of extra gratitude for helping me complete the structure replication project. Not many friends would help you move a metric ton of rock from point a to point b…and then back again for three warm PBRs. Finally, I’d like to thank my wife, Briana, and my parents, Barb and Rob, for all of their encouragement and tolerance while I completed this endeavor. I’d never have finished without you all! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT OF THESIS ..............................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................v TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................................................................................vii LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................................................xii LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................................xvii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1 Project Area and Site Locations ...............................................................................................................5 Environment.............................................................................................................................................6 Geology and Physiography ...............................................................................................................7 Climate..............................................................................................................................................9 Paleoclimatic Trends.......................................................................................................................12