The Ecology and Management of Kalahari Lions in a Conflict Area in Central Botswana. A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The Australian National University Fenner School of Environment & Society ANU College of Medicine, Biology & Environment Declaration I hereby declare that the work contained within these pages is wholly my own work and that where I have used the information from other work, I have made every effort to clearly cite the author of that information. Appropriate contributions to study design, analysis and editing are recognized in the acknowledgements section. Signed__________________________ Kevin MacFarlane ii Abstract African Lions (Panthera leo) are an integral aspect of natural ecosystems in Africa and provide income and ecosystem services to many human communities. They directly regulate herbivore populations, which in turn maintain grasslands and associated systems. Those ecosystems have degraded in recent decades and the concurrent decline in lion population is believed to play a role. I investigated factors affecting lion behaviour and ecology including the effect of seasonal variation in wild prey herd size. Current levels of herbivore prey are significantly lower than before the creation of countrywide veterinary cordon fences and total lean season biomass was estimated at 375.5 kg.km-2. I placed GPS position locating radio collars on 13 lions in 6 prides in a study area of approximately 9,911 square kilometres in the north of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR), in central Botswana. The collars acquired total of 241,858 usable GPS fixes and I visited each lion monthly. Lion spatial behaviour appears to have changed in response to the decline in herbivores, although there is only a small amount of historical data. Lion home ranges were large (mean home range = 2116.5 km2, range 798.3- 4243.7 km2) compared to two prides from a study in the 1970‘s in the same area which had home ranges of approximately 337 km2. Those prides increased their range to today‘s sizes only in severe drought years, but rainfall during the study period was high. I interpret this as evidence that seasonal lower herbivore densities have increased lion ranges, and reduced the number of lions in the CKGR. I estimate the current population in the study area at 307 adult lions, or 3.1 lions per 100km2. During months of high herbivore group densities, lions travelled further on a daily basis (mean daily movement distance of 7,160 m at iii lowest density, to 8,616 m at the highest density), and males on average travelled significantly further each day than females (mean of 10,071.6m per day for male, SD = 7099.4, maximum 48,462m and a mean of 7,633.6m per day for females, SD= 5,069.3m, maximum 29,470m). Females moved similar distances daily even while supporting cubs under 3 months old. Lions significantly preferred hunting prey species above 90kg, but also hunted the smaller warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and African porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis). This has implications for conflict mitigation and lion conservation. I investigate the economics and extent of the lion livestock conflict in Central Botswana and explore potential management options in light of this new data. Management options should be carefully selected with consideration for economics, politics and local conditions, and should target locations where conflict mitigation can have the greatest benefit for both lion conservation and economic improvement of stakeholders in order to have the best chance for success. After carefully examining the ecology of the Central Kalahari lions and the management of the reserve and farms in the area, I conclude that mitigating lion-livestock conflict is best achieved through improving grazing practices and not a change in reserve management. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank in particular my supervisors Rob Heinsohn, and Steve Harris. They were of course integral to the process of designing this PhD, and for bouncing my research ideas off until they formed a coherent and manageable whole, and for coercing me into finishing off the product you see before you. They provided much needed grammatical and scientific suggestions that have improved me as a scientist for which I could never begin to truly repay. For scientific advice I would like to thank Bruce Doran, Glyn Maude, Thorolf Meyer, Kelly Crewes and Rich Reading. I would like to thank the vets for their help, Dr Dane Hawk, Dr Mark Bing and Dr Rob Jackson, as well as the pilot who gave so much of his time, Hal Bowker, who did so many hours helping me find lions in far flung places in the Kalahari, doing in a few short hours in our 2 seater decathlon, A2-BUZ, what would have taken many weeks on the ground in my Landcruiser. Also, Heiko Ginzmer and Mike Holding for stepping into the pilots seat when Hal was unavailable. The auto mechanics and electricians of Maun deserve a mention for the many overhauls of the trusty old black Landcruiser, and the many sets of tires I had to replace after being claimed by the Kalahari thornscrub. Thanks to to Crispin, Rainbow, Arthur Potts their assistants and all the guys from TyreMax, Roja Roja Radio and Aliboats. Grant Huskisson deserves a special mention as he did a brilliant job of getting the car ready for the bush with the extras that he handcrafted, and repairing my Yagi antennaes after each bush beating they suffered. All the staff at the Department of Wildlife and National Parks for the assistance with permits, access to records, and for assistance at the gates of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, especially the park manager Tefo Gabanapelo. I would like to thank those people that have helped by correspondence, answering my many emails and phone calls, Andy Loveridge, Rebecca Klein, Rebecca Hobbs, Dave Wildt, Linda van Bommel, Sybille Klenzendorf, Luke Hunter, Katie Frohardt, Johan Steyn, Christiane Kolbe, Vanessa Sagar, and Charlie Mayhew, Chistiaan and Hanlie Winterbach, Cleo and Jan Graaf, Kristina Kesch, Dominik Bauer, Chariloas Philidis and Grant Hopcraft, I would also like to thank my supporters, Barbara Parris, Susan Campbell, Don Bourgeous, Mark Wurzel, Wendy Gardiner, John and Jan Kuner, Marlies, Bart and Dick Ponsien, Malinn Saxe, Anton van Schalkwyk, Gill Shepherd, Conrad Hennig, Jim Pierner, Kabir Dhanji, Christopher Chow, Louis Blythe, Karen Winfield and a few more anonymous donors; you are not forgotten or underappreciated! For people that have provided me with free accommodation in various places, or opportunities to talk about the research, I would like to thank Steph, Julian and Angie Scales, Derek Reynish, Sue Smart, Deborah Cameron, Melanie Withnall, Lindsay Mcintyre, Marianne and Sandy Kerr, Kevin Jeanes, Blair and Jude Henry, and my family for their support, Jenny, Colin, Douglas, Anthony, Peter, John and Cheryl MacFarlane, Mike, Bev, Mark, Andrew, Gav, Helen and Mervyn Smythe, Brendan and Fiona Lofty, Chris, Heather, Ross and Justin Nel, Cally, and Nick Hanley. Whether they know it or not, every time I discussed part of my project with them, I was renewed with ideas, and vigour for the research, and thus they played a role in the formation and direction of this work. v For assistance on the statistics of this research I would like to thank Ross Cunningham and Bob Forrester, as well as almost anyone at the Fenner School for environment and Society I ever talked to, but in particular Annabel Smith, Ingrid Stirnemann, Martin Westgate, Karen Ikin, Brett Howland, Chloe Sato, Laura Rayner, Julianna Lazzari and Wal Reinhardt. The Fenner IT team were always at hand to help with software, computer, network ,GIS and other issues, so thanks to Karl Nissen, Phil Greaves and from the Field Services, I have to thank Mauro Davanzo and Piers Barstow, and everyone in the office including Cathy Gray, Amy Chen, Clive Hilliker, Di Jakobisch, Kevin Mahoney and David Salt. Special thanks to Dave Wong and Aleshia Westgate for editing of the manuscript when I needed it most For publicising the research, I would like to thank Linda Pfotenhauer from the Air Botswana in-flight magazine - Peolwane, Melanie Withnall and Deborah Cameron from 702 ABC Radio, and Simon Couper from the ANU Reporter. Louis Blythe generously designed and maintained the website during the write- up phase of the study. I really couldn't have got anywhere without my many and long suffering assistants, who sat for long hours on the top of the vehicle in tremendous heat, or dug the car out of deep sand or mud, or even ate my bushcooking; from James Bradley, Mmoloki Keiteretsi, Botilo Thsimlogo, Bahiti, Keiutemetsi Ngaka, Simon, Viyanna Leo, Sarah Kerr, Niti Mishra, Alecia Carter, Hanri Ehlers, Jane Bettenay, Kaelo Makati, July, Martin Dube, Moja, Nganjone Nganjone, Shadrick, Rapps, Spokes, and James Gifford. At the Botswana Department of Wildlife and National Parks, I would especially like to thank Dr Cyril Taolo for his patience, and willingness to help in granting information and permits that allowed this project to continue, plus all the staff working at his head office and the regional offices of Maun, Ghanzi and Rakops, and especially the staff at the Central Kalahari Game Reserves Tsaw and Matswere gates. The staff from the two Safari lodges in the CKGR, Tau Pan Lodge and Kalahari Plains Camp were always friendly and welcome, allowing me to use their facilities, fix the vehicle, use their airstrips, and even their airplanes, and give talks to their guests about the research. Some of the farmers around the CKGR provided a lot of information, as well as allowing me to follow lions on their property, stay in their camps, and often fed me, well beyond the call of duty.