Singapore Stories – Language and Class in Singapore: An investigation into the socio-economic implications of English literacy as a life chance among the ethnic Chinese of Singapore from 1945 to 2000 Ernest Koh Wee Song BA (Hons), W. Aust. This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of The University of Western Australia School of Social and Cultural Studies Discipline of Asian Studies 2007 ii DECLARATION FOR THESES CONTAINING PUBLISHED WORK AND/OR WORK PREPARED FOR PUBLICATION 1 This thesis contains sole-authored published work and/or work prepared for publication. The bibliographic details of the work and where it appears in the thesis is outlined below: Koh, Ernest, “Ignoring ‘History from Below’: People’s History in the Historiography of Singapore”, History Compass, Vol. 5 (1), 2007, 11 – 25. (A revised version of this paper appears in Chapter One of the thesis). ---, “On the Margins of the ‘Economic Miracle’: Non English-Literate Chinese Factory Workers in Singapore, 1980 – 1990”, Tonan Ajia Kenkyu (Southeast Asian Studies), Vol. 44 (4), March 2007, 466 – 493. (A revised version of this paper appears in Chapter Six of this thesis). This thesis is the original work of the author except where otherwise acknowledged. Signature……………………………… Date…...……………………………… iii iv Abstract This thesis is an investigation into the socio-economic effects of English literacy among the Chinese of Singapore between 1945 and 2000. Through the use of oral history, statistical evidence, and existing secondary literature on the conditions of everyday life in Singapore, it explores how English literacy as a life chance has played a key role in shaping the class structures that exist among the Chinese in Singapore today. Adopting a ‘perspective from below’, this study provides a historical account that surveys the experiences of everyday life in Singapore through the stories of everyday life. It seeks to present an account that more accurately reflects the nation’s nuanced past through defining eras in Singapore’s post-war history – ‘Singapore Stories’ in the plural, as opposed to the singular. Viewing the impact of English literacy through the prism of Max Weber’s concept of life chances allows an examination of the opportunities in the lives of the interviewees cited within by distinguishing between negotiated and corralled life chances. The overarching argument made by this study is that in the later stages of Singapore’s post- war history and development, English literacy was a critical factor that allowed individuals to negotiate key opportunities in life, thus increasing the likelihood of socio- economic mobility. For those without English literacy, the range of possibilities in life became increasingly restricted, corralling individuals into a less affluent economic state. While acknowledging the significance of structural forces, and in particular the shaping influence of industrialisation, economic policy, and social engineering, this study also demonstrates how regarding the Singapore Chinese as possessing a variety of distinguishing social and economic characteristics, all of which serve to segment the community as an ethnic group, adds a new and critical dimension to our academic understanding of the nation’s social past and present. By locating areas of resistance and the development of life strategies by an individual or household, this thesis illustrates how language, literacy, and class operated within the reality of undefined and multi- layered historical spaces among the Chinese of Singapore. v Table of Contents Abstract v Table of Contents vi Acknowledgements viii Glossary and abbreviations x Notes on stylistic conventions xiv Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 1 Chapter One……………………………………………………………............ 5 ‘History from below’: People’s History in the historiography of Singapore Chapter Two………………………………………………………………….. 39 Sources, Literature, and Method Chapter Three……………………………………………………………....... 56 Hope, anxiety, and frustration: The English-literate Chinese working class 1945 – 1957 Chapter Four…………………………………………………………………. 92 Hope, anxiety, and frustration revisited: The non English-literate Chinese students 1945 – 1965 Chapter Five………………………………………………………………… 124 An emergent class structure: employment, material wealth, and the English mono-literate Chinese middle class 1979 – 1990 Chapter Six………………………………………………………………….. 160 Language, literacy, class: the case of Singapore’s non English-literate Chinese factory workers 1979 – 1990 Chapter Seven………………………………………………………………. 192 The price of a miracle: language, literacy, and class among the Chinese of Singapore 1990 – 2000 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 232 vi Bibliography……………………………………………………………….... 240 Appendices Appendix A: 257 Appendix B: 258 Appendix C: 261 Appendix D: 264 Appendix E: 267 Appendix F: 269 Appendix G: 270 vii Acknowledgements A senior professor of History once remarked to me that the PhD is the loneliest journey one could possibly undertake as a scholar. While the point made in this observation is noted and entirely justified, backed no less by his years of supervision of scores of other postgraduate students, on a different level I could not disagree more. This thesis can also be understood as being the result of a series of collaborations, and I could not possibly have completed this work without the support of many individuals and organisations. I am indebted to the Discipline of Asian Studies and the School of Social and Cultural Studies at The University of Western Australia for hosting and supporting my doctoral candidature. I am also most grateful to UWA’s Graduate Research School and Scholarships Office for providing the opportunity and financial means to undertake this venture. Words cannot adequately express my appreciation for the supervision I have received over the past three and-a-half years. In Dr David Bourchier, Dr Stephen Dobbs, and Professor Anne Pauwels I was privileged to have three distinguished academics offering guidance throughout the project. Special mentions must also be made of Associate Professor John Gordon, Associate Professor Lyn Parker, and Dr Malcolm Mintz. Throughout the candidature, I was also reliant on the support of Ms Miho Masel on the administrative aspects of the PhD, and I am in awe of her remarkable efficiency. This thesis also bears the academic DNA of a number of individuals who were patient enough to run through various sections of my work with a critical eye, offering perspectives and thoughts that have helped shape this thesis. In this area I must express my most sincere thanks to Dr Romit Dasgupta, Professor S. Gopinathan, Dr Fiona Groenhout, and Mr Loh Kah Seng. For help in most of the interviews, I found myself turning to Ms Sim Er Ling, a wonderfully gifted note-taker and friend who never ceases to amaze me. It was only with her expertise, help, and enthusiasm that this thesis is able to draw from so many successful discussions. viii Needless to say, this study would also not have been possible if not for the time, cooperation, and contributions of the interviewees. There are too many to name here, and most have asked to be represented by pseudonyms anyway, but each and every interview was illuminating. On my part, I hope that they will take pride in recognising their lives – their ‘Singapore Stories’ – as they are presented in the narrative that follows. I would also like to express my appreciation for the assistance rendered by the staff at the SEAMEO Regional Language Centre in Singapore, the Lee Kong Chian National Library of Singapore, the National University of Singapore Library, and the Scholar’s Centre at The University of Western Australia. Various statistics were also kindly provided by the staff at the Singapore Department of Statistics, the Australian Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs, Statistics Canada, by Naomi Eisenthal of Statistics New Zealand, and by Anita Crystal of the United States Census Bureau. Apart from the individuals already mentioned, the friendship of several others made life during the thesis-writing infinitely more agreeable. I am grateful to Ms Kelly Gerard, Mr Aaron Hales, Mr Russell Harwood, Mr Kieren Haslam, Dr Chang Yau Hoon, Ms Kim Lee Von, Mrs Cecilia Leong-Salobir, Dr Jason Lim, Dr Ryota Nishino, and Mr Patrick Sagaram. I am also beholden to Dr Bonnie Thomas, particularly for her concern, advice, and encouragement; to Dr Gary Sigley; to Dr Dean Chan of Edith Cowan University, and to Dr Christopher Crouch of the same institution. My parents are, as always, the indefatigable cornerstone of my life. As the ones who taught and encouraged me, perhaps to their exasperation and regret at times, to question everything, they inadvertently set me on the path toward this journey. But this thesis owes its greatest debt to a budding architect who has never failed to furnish me with inspiration. Without her affection and encouragement this thesis would never have survived its first drafting, let alone be completed. And so, it is to her that I especially dedicate this work. ix Glossary and Abbreviations Ah Beng Used (often in a derogatory manner by English-educated, upper-class Singaporeans) to denote uncouth and kitsch behaviour by Chinese who are also unable to speak English ‘properly’ Ang moh pai Hokkien phrase, its literal meaning is “of the Caucasian clan”, and can insinuate that a person is more Caucasian than Asian in terms of his/her accent and cultural taste APR The All Party Committee of the Singapore Legislative Assembly