THREE ESSAYS ON CULTURE AND WHISTLEBLOWING: A MULTIMETHOD COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‗I AT MᾹNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT APRIL 2015 By Masahisa K. Yamaguchi Dissertation Committee: Dharm P.S. Bhawuk, Chairperson H. David Bess Kiyohiko Ito O. Nicholas Ordway Kentaro Hayashi, Outside Member i Contents ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................ v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ vii GENERAL INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 Essay 1: Whistleblowing in the Lifeworld I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 5 II. Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 5 III. Historical Development of Whistleblowing in the United States ......................................................... 7 IV. Historical Development of Whistleblowing in Japan ......................................................................... 24 V. Discussion ........................................................................................................................................... 28 VI. Whistleblowing Awareness in the United States ................................................................................ 34 VII. Whistleblowing Awareness in Japan .................................................................................................. 37 VIII. Discussion .......................................................................................................................................... 43 IX. Whistleblowers in the United States ................................................................................................... 44 X. Whistleblowers in Japan ..................................................................................................................... 58 XI. Discussion ........................................................................................................................................... 60 XII. Whistleblowing in the Media: the United States ................................................................................ 61 XIII. Whistleblowing in the Media: Japan ................................................................................................... 65 XIV. Discussion ........................................................................................................................................... 67 XV. Whistleblowing in Corporation ........................................................................................................... 68 a. United States: Case Study of GM‘s Faulty Ignition ........................................................................ 68 b. Japan: Case Study of Toyota‘s Unintended Acceleration ............................................................... 69 c. Discussion ....................................................................................................................................... 72 XVI. General Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 72 Essay 2: Moral Intensity & Whistleblowing Behavior I. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 77 II. Literature Review ................................................................................................................................ 77 III. Methodology ........................................................................................................................................ 81 a. Scenario Development .................................................................................................................... 82 b. Translation ...................................................................................................................................... 89 c. Sample ............................................................................................................................................. 90 IV. Results.................................................................................................................................................. 90 ii a. Ranking Responses For The Sample From the United States ......................................................... 91 b. Ranking Responses for the Sample from Japan .............................................................................. 98 c. Combined Score of the Ranking Responses for the United States and Japan ............................... 105 d. Preferred Choice for the Sample from the United States .............................................................. 113 e. Preferred Choice for the Sample from Japan ................................................................................ 115 f. Combined Score of the Preferred Choice for United States and Japan ......................................... 117 g. Combined Score of the Five Given Responses ............................................................................. 119 h. Combined Score of the Four Given Responses ............................................................................. 121 i. Whistleblower Response (Only the Fifth Response for all Situations) .......................................... 123 j. Order Effect in Presentation of Scenarios ...................................................................................... 125 k. Gender Effect ................................................................................................................................ 127 l. Ethnicity Effect .............................................................................................................................. 129 V. Discussion .......................................................................................................................................... 133 VI. Limitations ......................................................................................................................................... 135 VII.Summary & Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 136 Essay 3: Cultural, Organizational & Individual Differences in Whistleblowing I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 138 II. Literature Review ............................................................................................................................... 138 III. Hypothesis & Model Building ........................................................................................................... 144 1. Whistleblowing and Culture Theories ..................................................................................... 144 a. Tightness and Looseness ............................................................................................. 145 b. Individualism & Collectivism ..................................................................................... 147 c. Social Axiom ............................................................................................................... 148 2. Whistleblowing and Organizational Variables ........................................................................ 151 a. Organizational Policy Towards Whistleblowing ........................................................ 152 b. Perception of Politics in Organizations ....................................................................... 152 c. Perceived Organizational Support in Organizations ................................................... 153 3. Whistleblowing and Individual Differences ............................................................................ 155 a. Allocentrism & Idiocentrism ....................................................................................... 155 b. Big Five Personality Factors ....................................................................................... 156 IV. Methodology ...................................................................................................................................... 158 a. Power Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 158 iii b. Data Collection ............................................................................................................................. 158 c. Instruments Used ........................................................................................................................... 159 d. Scale Development ....................................................................................................................... 160 e. Sample ..........................................................................................................................................