DIRECTORATE GENERAL FOR INTERNAL POLICIES POLICY DEPARTMENT C: CITIZENS’ RIGHTS AND CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS WOMEN’S RIGHTS & GENDER EQUALITY The Situation of Women in the Gulf States STUDY Abstract Upon request by the FEMM Committee, this study examines the economic, political and socio-cultural changes which have affected the situation of women in the Gulf region over the last decades. Through an overall analysis and individual country reports, it notably sheds light on similarities and differences concerning women’s emancipation in Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates. Gender discrimination is discussed both in law and in practice, focusing on women’s political and economic empowerment, education, migration, family and health. PE 509.985 EN DOCUMENT REQUESTED BY THE COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY AUTHORS Dr May Seikaly, Wayne State University Rahil Roodsaz, MSc, Atria Institute on Gender Equality and Women’s History Drs Corine van Egten, Atria Institute on Gender Equality and Women’s History COUNTRY EXPERTS Dr Mona Abbass Fadhel (Bahrain) Dr Philippa Winkler (Iran and Iraq) Dr Wanda Krause (Kuwait and Qatar) Dr Khalid M. Al-Azri (Oman) Dr Sherifa Zuhur (Saudi Arabia) Dr Shahida El-Baz (United Arab Emirates) EDITORIAL REVIEW COMMITTEE Prof. Dr Willy Jansen, Director Institute for Gender Studies, Radboud University Nijmegen Dr Renée Römkens, Director Atria Institute on Gender Equality and Women’s History Drs Thera van Osch, Independent consultant/Director OQ Consulting BV Kinga Lohmann, Director KARAT Coalition RESPONSIBLE ADMINISTRATORS Erika Schulze Ottavio Marzocchi Policy Department C: Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs European Parliament B-1047 Brussels E-mail: [email protected] LINGUISTIC VERSIONS Original: EN ABOUT THE EDITOR Policy Departments provide in-house and external expertise to support EP committees and other parliamentary bodies in shaping legislation and exercising democratic scrutiny. To contact the Policy Department or to subscribe to its monthly newsletter please write to: [email protected] European Parliament, Manuscript completed in October 2014. © European Union, Brussels, 2014. This document is available on the Internet at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/studies DISCLAIMER The opinions expressed in this document are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the European Parliament. Reproduction and translation for non-commercial purposes are authorised, provided the source is acknowledged and the publisher is given prior notice and sent a copy. 2 The situation of women in the Gulf States ________________________________________________________________________ CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 8 LIST OF TABLES 10 LIST OF FIGURES 13 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 14 1. CONDITIONS OF WOMEN IN THE GULF: A HISTORICAL BACKGROUND16 2. POLITICAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORKS AND PRACTICES 19 2.1 Diversity and identity politics 19 2.2 Main gender equality issues 22 2.3 CEDAW ratifications and reservations 33 2.4 Recent developments regarding women’s rights and the effects of the ‘Arab Spring’ 34 3. WOMEN’S RIGHTS ORGANISATIONS AND SOCIAL MEDIA IN THE GULF STATES 37 3.1 Women’s movements in the Gulf region throughout history 37 3.2 Margins of manoeuvre 40 3.3 Main areas of action 42 3.4 Regional and international collaborations 44 4. WOMEN IN DECISION-MAKING IN THE GULF 45 4.1 Women in political and judicial decision-making 45 4.2 Economic decision-making 53 5. THE ROLE OF THE EU REGARDING WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY IN THE GULF STATES 58 5.1 Iran 58 5.2 Iraq 62 5.3 GCC countries 64 5.4 Conclusion 70 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 71 6.1 Recommendations 72 Brief overview of the findings 78 7. COUNTRY REPORT BAHRAIN 81 7.1 Country profile 81 3 Policy Department C: Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs ________________________________________________________________ 7.2 Constitutional and legal provisions regarding women’s rights and gender equality 81 7.3 Ratifications of CEDAW and other international conventions and agreements on women’s rights 87 7.4 Labour force and employment situation of women 89 7.5 The situation and organisations of LGBTI people, women belonging to ethnic minorities and disabled women 89 7.6 The state of play on the elimination of violence against women 90 7.7 Women in decision-making 92 7.8 Civil society organisations working for women’s rights and connections with European civil society organisations 94 7.9 EU activities and collaborations promoting women’s rights 94 7.10 Recommendations by the national expert, Dr Mona Abbass Fadhel 96 8. COUNTRY REPORT IRAN 97 8.1 Country profile 97 8.2 Constitutional and legal provisions regarding women’s rights and gender equality 97 8.3 Ratifications of CEDAW and other international conventions and agreements on women’s rights 103 8.4 Labour force and employment situation of women 104 8.5 The situation and organisations of LGBTI people, women belonging to ethnic minorities and disabled women 105 8.6 The state of play on the elimination of violence against women 106 8.7 Women in decision-making 108 8.8 Civil society organisations working for women’s rights and connections with European civil society organisations 109 8.9 EU activities and collaborations promoting women’s rights 109 8.10 Recommendations by the national expert, Dr Philippa Winkler 111 9. COUNTRY REPORT IRAQ 112 9.1 Country profile 112 9.2 Constitutional and legal provisions regarding women’s rights and gender equality 112 9.3 Ratifications of CEDAW and other international conventions and agreements on women’s rights 117 9.4 Labour force and employment situation of women 119 9.5 The situation and organisations of LGBTI people, women belonging to ethnic minorities and disabled women 120 4 The situation of women in the Gulf States ________________________________________________________________________ 9.6 The state of play on the elimination of violence against women 121 9.7 Women in decision-making 123 9.8 Civil society organisations working for women’s rights and connections with European civil society organisations 125 9.9 EU activities and collaborations promoting women’s rights 126 9.10 Recommendations by the national expert, Dr Philippa Winkler 129 10. COUNTRY REPORT KUWAIT 130 10.1 Country profile 130 10.2 Constitutional and legal provisions regarding women’s rights and gender equality 130 10.3 Ratifications of CEDAW and other international conventions and agreements on women’s rights 134 10.4 Labour force and employment situation of women 136 10.5 The situation and organisations of LGBTI people, women belonging to ethnic minorities and disabled women 136 10.6 The state of play on the elimination of violence against women 137 10.7 Women in decision-making 138 10.8 Civil society organisations working for women’s rights and connections with European civil society organisations 140 10.9 EU activities and collaborations promoting women’s rights 140 10.10 Recommendations by the national expert, Dr Wanda Krause 142 11. COUNTRY REPORT OMAN 143 11.1 Country profile 143 11.2 Constitutional and legal provisions regarding women’s rights and gender equality 143 11.3 Ratifications of CEDAW and other international conventions and agreements on women’s rights 148 11.4 Labour force and employment situation of women 150 11.5 The situation and organisations of LGBTI people, women belonging to ethnic minorities and disabled women 151 11.6 The state of play on the elimination of violence against women 152 11.7 Women in decision-making 154 11.8 Civil society organisations working for women’s rights and connections with European civil society organisations 156 11.9 EU activities and collaborations promoting women’s rights 156 11.10 Recommendations by the national expert, Dr Khalid M. Al-Azri 158 5 Policy Department C: Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs ________________________________________________________________ 12. COUNTRY REPORT QATAR 159 12.1 Country profile 159 12.2 Constitutional and legal provisions regarding women’s rights and gender equality 159 12.3 Ratifications of CEDAW and other international conventions and agreements on women’s rights 164 12.4 Labour force and employment situation of women 165 12.5 The situation and organisations of LGBTI people, women belonging to ethnic minorities and disabled women 166 12.6 The state of play on the elimination of violence against women 167 12.7 Women in decision-making 169 12.8 Civil society organisations working for women’s rights and connections with European civil society organisations 170 12.9 EU activities and collaborations promoting women’s rights 171 12.10 Recommendations by the national expert, Dr Wanda Krause 174 13. COUNTRY REPORT SAUDI ARABIA 175 13.1 Country profile 175 13.2 Constitutional and legal provisions regarding women’s rights and gender equality 175 13.3 Ratifications of CEDAW and other international conventions and agreements on women’s rights 183 13.4 Labour force and employment situation of women 185 13.5 The situation and organisations of LGBTI people, women belonging to ethnic minorities and disabled women 186 13.6 The state of play on the elimination of violence against women 186 13.7 Women in decision-making 190 13.8 Civil society organisations working for women’s rights and connections with European civil society organisations 192 13.9 EU activities and collaborations promoting women’s rights 192 13.10 Recommendations by the national expert, Dr Sherifa Zuhur