Florida Historical Quarterly Volume 30 Number 1 Florida Historical Quarterly, Vol 30, Article 4 Issue 1 1951 The Seminole War: Its Background and Onset Mark F. Boyd Part of the American Studies Commons, and the United States History Commons Find similar works at: https://stars.library.ucf.edu/fhq University of Central Florida Libraries http://library.ucf.edu This Article is brought to you for free and open access by STARS. It has been accepted for inclusion in Florida Historical Quarterly by an authorized editor of STARS. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Recommended Citation Boyd, Mark F. (1951) "The Seminole War: Its Background and Onset," Florida Historical Quarterly: Vol. 30 : No. 1 , Article 4. Available at: https://stars.library.ucf.edu/fhq/vol30/iss1/4 Boyd: The Seminole War: Its Background and Onset THE SEMINOLE WAR: ITS BACKGROUND AND ONSET * by MARK F. BOYD Historian, Florida Board of Parks and Historic Memorials (I) Introduction. (II) The Seminoles of Florida. (III) Mount- ing Tension. (IV) A Sugar Empire Dissolves. (V) The Murders at Fort King. (VI) The First Battle of the Withlacoochee River. (VII) Defeat of Dade. (VIII) The Saga of Luis Pacheco. (IX) Roster of Dade’s Command. (X) Sources. (I) INTRODUCTION The action generally known as the Dade Massacre is an event which cannot be adequately understood if viewed by itself, since it was but one aspect of an explosion occurring in the winter of 1835-1836 which rocked the Territory of Florida. The explosion was the culmination of the mounting tension between the whites on the one hand, and red and black on the other, whose origins antedated the acquisition of Florida by the United States. This crisis must be viewed in the perspective of, and against the back- ground formed by the forces from which it developed. It is at- tempted here to sketch this background in a detached manner, though limitations of space preclude presentation in detail. The tale is a narrative of harshness, with many sordid aspects. In view of the pressure of settlers for lands, the solution of the problem through emigration of the Indians was probably the best which could be devised, and it is to be regretted that the advantages of removal were not more patiently and attractively presented to the Indians before a determination to resist removal arose among them. When this sentiment had crystalized, the climax was the wholly natural reaction of a simple, bewildered, wronged and liberty-loving people; who, subjected to inexorable pressure, saw no other dignified solution or avenue of relief. The ______________ * The Quarterly is grateful to the Florida State Board of Parks and His- toric Memorials for assistance in the cost of publication of this article. Published by STARS, 1951 1 Florida Historical Quarterly, Vol. 30 [1951], No. 1, Art. 4 4 FLORIDA HISTORICAL QUARTERLY outburst itself consisted of four major sanguinary events of nearly simultaneous occurrence and, as is so often the case, many of those who felt its impact had little if any responsibility for its production. (II) THE SEMINOLES OF FLORIDA The original Indian population of Florida, with the possible exception of the Calos or Caloosa, was largely if not altogether eradicated by the English instigated Creek raids during Queen Anne’s War, 1701-1714 (see Boyd, Smith and Griffin, post. Sources), although evidently in decline prior to this time as a consequence of epidemic infections acquired from white sources. While the raids resulted in much loss of life, depopulation was more thoroughly effected through the enforced evacuation of the survivors. These were relocated by the English on lands in and adjacent to the Province of Carolina. The English, how- ever, became increasingly oppressive and high-handed in their dealings with these captives and their earlier allies. Indian re- sentment found expression in a widespread compact among the tribes, which had as its objective the expulsion of the English. The resulting brief struggle known as the Yamassee War oc- curred in 1715. It nearly attained the desired result, but suddenly collapsed owing to the defection of the Cherokees. The defeated Indians scattered from the vicinity of Carolina, most Yamassees returning to Florida, but others, including the Creeks, returned to the old dwelling sites on the banks of the Chattahoochee river. Here they were sought out by English, French and Spanish emissaries, the former not to inflict chastisement, but to compete with the others for Indian support in an anticipated continuation of intercolonial strife. While the Spaniards found adherents in certain factions, others, probably finding English trade or pres- ents more satisfactory, sided with the latter. The Spaniards en- couraged their partisans to return to Florida and repopulate Apalachee. While successful in inducing several bands from the https://stars.library.ucf.edu/fhq/vol30/iss1/4 2 Boyd: The Seminole War: Its Background and Onset SEMINOLES OF FLORIDA 5 Chattahoochee river villages to make this move, the numbers were insufficient to repopulate the region as it once had been. The meager references to these bands make their ultimate fate uncertain, nor do they appear to have contributed significantly, if at all, to the final Indian repopulation of Florida. In 1767 only one town, Talahassa or Tonaby’s town, was located in ancient Apalachee. (Gauld-Pittman map). The Stuart-Purcell map also speaks of several other small villages, dependencies either of this or Mikasuky. By the time of the cession of Florida to Great Britain in 1763, certain Indian bands were established in the upper part of the peninsula, who were referred to as Seminoles (Semenolas, Simi- noles, Seminolies, Seminolys). The word is said to be derived from the Muskogee Ishti Semoli (Brinton), variously rendered as meaning separatist, runaway or vagabond. It more particularly expressed the non-participation of these bands in the councils of the confederation. While in a broad sense it is now common to refer to all of the later day Florida Indians as Seminoles, the term was originally applied only to the Hitchiti speaking Oco- nee, the earliest immigrants to preserve their identity. It will be shown that with the exception of a few insignificant remnants of the original Florida tribes, the immigrants were composed of bands identified or affiliated with the Muskogee or Creek Confederacy. The tribes composing the confederation were not, however, homogeneous. Thus along the eastern pe- riphery of the territory which came to be dominated by this or- ganization, were a number of tribes speaking a language known as Hitchiti, a circumstance suggestive of a common origin, who are regarded as the earlier possessors of central Alabama and Georgia. According to Spoehr, the Muskogee and Hitchiti lang- uages are mutually unintelligible, while Hitchiti and Mikasuky are variant but mutually understandable dialects of Hitchiti. The primitive Hitchiti-speakers were finally displaced and dominated by the later arriving Muskogee-speakers, with whom they finally Published by STARS, 1951 3 Florida Historical Quarterly, Vol. 30 [1951], No. 1, Art. 4 6 FLORIDA HISTORICAL QUARTERLY established a practical relationship, with later affiliation in the confederacy. It would appear that the language barrier between the races contributed materially to the difficulties between the races which at length led to war. And here the Indians were at a great dis- advantage. The number of whites capable of serving as interpre- ters was always limited, Hambly and Richard being the princi- pal, if not the only ones. Very few if any Indians appear to have possessed the qualifications, as the latter invariably depended on some negro for this service. When the agents or commissioners to the Indians had to depend on some practically unlettered frontiersman, or on a negro versed in only English plantation dialect, to interpret and explain the terms and stipulations of a proposed treaty or agreement expressed in highly precise Eng- lish, it would appear inevitable that the version gotten over to the Indians, must, at the least, have been highly garbled. It is not known, and the records do not clarify the point, whether the Indians were ever furnished with copies in English of the agreements they executed. Consequently they appear to have been subsequently always dependant on the declaration of the agent as to its stipulations and their significance. Even conced- ing that the American negotiators invariably had presented to the Indians every clause of a contemplated agreement, who can expect that under the circumstances the interpreters always gave a faithful, adequate and accurate rendering, or that the Indians comprehended, fully and exactly, the commitment they assumed. To attempt at this late date close analysis of the origin and composition of the Seminole Indians, is a task that can neither be sufficiently comprehensive nor accurate. In the absence of clear tradition and written records on the part of the Indians themselves, such a narrative can only be compiled from brief or fragmentary comments written by whites, who rarely accurately understood Indian pronunciation, and invariably found its uni- form expression in English or Spanish orthography an impossi- https://stars.library.ucf.edu/fhq/vol30/iss1/4 4 Boyd: The Seminole War: Its Background and Onset SEMINOLES OF FLORIDA 7 bility. Hence there is wide variation in the spelling and syllabifi- cation of these names, some of which variations are reproduced. These difficulties of audition and orthography led to the appli- cation of English nicknames to many individuals, while half- breeds were variously identified by the surname of their white father or their tribal name. Indians of rank or distinction were known by their titles rather than by name, while others, prob- ably untried youths, possessing neither quality, were practically nameless. Among the titles of rank, that of mico or mic-co was the high- est, and by the traders was commonly interpreted as king.