Amnesty as a Mechanism for Conflict Resolution: A Study of the Niger Delta Conflict in Nigeria Abdul-Wasi Babatunde Moshood Supervisor: Dr. Suzanne Francis A dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Conflict Transformation and Peace Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2016 Declaration I, Abdul-Wasi Babatunde Moshood, declare that this dissertation is my own original work, has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university, and that the sources that I have used have been fully acknowledged. The dissertation is submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Conflict Transformation and Peace Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2016 Signature ------------------------------------------- Dated -------------------------------------------- i Abstract This study, through extensive field work interrogates the amnesty programme in the Niger Delta, and demonstrates how amnesty has impacted on peace. The Niger Delta region has suffered neglect from successive governments. The unbridled exploration for oil by multinationals, and neglect by the government has led to the conflict becoming intractable. In previous years, efforts at resolving the conflict in the Niger Delta included both the use of force and pacification, an approach that was a mixture of both force and dialogue. Little success seems to have been recorded using these initial mechanisms. The introduction of amnesty, however, seems to provide a palpable solution to the intransigent conflict, but has received criticism. Scholars have diverse views on the introduction and implementation of the amnesty programme in the Niger Delta conflict. Some of them opine that the programme should not be considered as a “silver- bullet”, but rather a temporary palliative to ensure peace in the region. Others argue that amnesty is just a process employed to buy peace, to ensure unhindered access to crude oil production in the region, and not a process informed by the need to achieve sustainable peace in the region. The need to engender sustainable peace in the Niger Delta is central to any future socio- economic development. This need is key to the introduction of the amnesty programme. Since the introduction of amnesty, the region has enjoyed stability, there has been an increase in the production of oil, and many Niger Delta people (including ex-militants) have been provided with the opportunity of capacity building and training in a peaceful coexistence. The study claims that amnesty as a home-grown conflict transformation mechanism could be used to achieve a sustainable peace in the oil rich region. ii Acknowledgements This study would not have been completed without the profound blessings and mercies of Allah, who Has granted me the wisdom, good health, and Has seen me through the entire period of the programme-to you belong all praises. I equally acknowledge the dedicated support, insights and guidance of my supervisor Dr. Suzanne Francis, currently academic cluster leader in the Department of Political Sciences at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. I am grateful for the constant encouragement. Dr Suzanne has been a great mentor and teacher, her words of encouragement are particularly inspiring, I am greatly indebted to you. I thank all my interviewees; of special mention is Dr Odion Akhaine who gave me a link to Port Harcourt. Also very important to mention is Chief Eze Christian Akani who received me in Port Harcourt and gave me a valuable link to Bayelsa state. I acknowledge the warmth reception of Alhaji Dokubo Asari in Abuja, one of my interviewees. I am honoured for the audience given to me by the director Environmental Action Group, Dr Uyi Ojo, and all other human right activists and environmental activists who afforded me their time. Also worth mentioning are the former foot soldiers-the ex-militant the Nature and all the members of his group. Other important personalities such as Mr Ledum Mittee, General Cecil, the technical head for amnesty Mr Lawrence Pepple and others too numerous to mention are profoundly appreciated for enriching my study. This acknowledgement will not be complete without special mention of Dr Onapajo Hakeem, I benefitted immensely from his scholarly sagacity and humane gesture. Dr Aderemi, Oshodi Abdul Gafar have also been great motivators and altruistic scholars, God will continue to be with you. I thank my former head of department and the current one Dr Abdur Rahman Olayiwola and Dr Mudasiru Surajudeen respectively, and all my colleagues in the department of Political Science Lagos state University for their support and understanding, God bless you all. iii I want to specially acknowledge the financial support of Alhaji Muhammad Lawal, he stood by me financially and morally during the trying times, you will never lack by the grace of God. I also express my heartfelt appreciation to all my Muslim brothers in Scottville; it has been a pleasant experience being in your midst. This will not go without mentioning Mr kamal Omopupa for your kind support, Dr Sarumi, and Dr Mrs. Rofia Sarumi for their hospitality in Scottville. My good friend and colleague in the department of Political Science Abiodun Abdul- Fatai-indeed, you have always given me a reason to be unrelenting and ever alert, the healthy rivalry between us contributed partly to this success. Most importantly, I thank my family whose support in all ramifications contributed to successful completion of my PhD programme. My sincere appreciation goes to my wife Mutiat Abeke, My children, Abdul Rahman, Lateefah, Rufaydah, and Rodiyah for your sacrifice, prayer, and your belief in me, may God continue to preserve you for me. I equally thank my parents and siblings for their support God will bless you all. Finally I thank my friends and members of the National Council of Muslim Youth organization Lagos state and Mushin Chapter for their prayer. I am grateful for the link provided by Alhaji Mustafa Balogun, I also wish to express my profound gratitude to my brother and friend Dr Raji Abdul Fatah for his concern, and my friend and Ustadz Maruf Thani, Alhaji Kewukanwo Quazeem, and Dr Afisi Oseni Taiwo for your concern and prayer. God will bless you all. iv Table of Contents Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Acronyms and abbreviations v --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Introduction 1 Chapter One: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework 17 Chapter Two: Reflection on Research Methodology 98 Chapter Three: The Changing Dynamics of the Niger Delta Conflict 116 Chapter Four: State Interventions in the Niger Delta Conflict and Their Failures 149 Chapter Five: The Amnesty Programme in Nigeria 177 Chapter Six: Amnesty as a mechanism for Conflict Resolution: the Niger Delta Experience 190 Chapter Seven: Conclusion to the Dissertation 261 v References 276 vi LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS CA Community Assistance DDR Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration DESPOADEC Delta State Oil Producing Areas Development Commission GWVSL Global West Vessel Specialist Limited MEND Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta MOSOP Movement for the Survival of Ogoni People NDBDA Niger Delta Basin Development Authority NDDB Niger Delta Development Board NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission NDDC Niger Delta Development Commission NDES Niger Delta Environmental Survey NDPCRC Niger Delta Peace and Conflict Resolution Committee OGIF Oil and Gas Industry Foundation OMPADEC Oil Mineral Producing Areas Development Commission OMPADEC Oil Minerals Producing Areas Development Commission PAP Post Amnesty Peace-Building PAO Presidential Amnesty Office PBSO The Peace-building Support Office PTF Presidential Task Force vii QIPs Quick Impact Projects RBDAs River Basin Development Authorities SALW Small Arms and Light Weapons SAPND Special Adviser to the President on Niger Delta SD Sustainable Development SOP Standard Operating Procedures SSR Security Sector Reform TC Technical committee TCND Technical Committee on the Niger Delta TRC Truth and Reconciliation Commission UN United Nations viii INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Peace is often believed to be the absence of war, and a situation where people go about their normal businesses without any form of hindrance. Recent discussions on peace negate this view; a state of calmness does not necessarily presuppose a state of peace, as we may be experiencing a ‘peace of the grave yard’1. On this, Goodhand and Hulme (1999) argue that peace is commonly conceptualised as the antithesis of war, ‘the beating of swords into ploughshares' (p.14), and a situation in which physical violence does not occur’. According to them, recent definitions of peace have extended the meaning beyond this view point which conceptualises “negative peace”. Galtung (1990) discusses structural violence, which manifests itself through structural inequality and the unequal distribution of power, which must be resolved by action that fosters “positive peace”. From this perspective peace is conceived not purely as an absence of physical violence but is intimately connected to the analysis and practice of social and economic development which is fostered by building peace (Goodhand and Hulme 1999, p.15). Peace-building on the other hand is conceptualized by the United Nations as ‘the promotion of institutional and socio-economic measures, at the local or national level, to address the underlying