CESIUM-137 FALLOUT IN INDIANA SOIL E PAGE A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREEE DOCTOR OF EDUCATION IN SCIENCE BY RICHARD T. WHITMAN DISSERTATION ADVISOR: DR. JOHN PICHTEL BALL STATE UNIVERSITY MUNCIE, INDIANA DECEMBER 2017 ABSTRACT DISSERTATION: CESIUM-137 FALLOUT IN INDIANA SOIL STUDENT: Richard T. Whitman DEGREE: Doctor of Education in Science COLLEGE: Sciences and Humanities DATE: December 2017 PAGES: 129 Atomic weapons testing during the Cold War and accidents at nuclear power plants have resulted in the release of radioactive fallout over great distances. Little is known about levels of fallout deposited in Indiana. The reported study sampled soil in all 92 Indiana counties to determine the present level of cesium-137 from the 2 to 12 centimeter depth from previous nuclear tests and other nuclear releases. A total of 67 samples were collected from forested areas and 25 from grasslands, both undisturbed since 1940, along with four controls from crawl spaces. Greater Cs- 137 retention occurred in the forested areas at approximately a 2:1 ratio. Other parameters investigated included soil clay content, rate of rainfall, and soil pH. Each variable was examined for possible statistical correlation with Cs-137 retention. Both clay content and combined clay content/rainfall were significantly (p < 0.05) correlated with soil Cs-137 levels. The four controls showed very low values of Cs-137 indicating the movement of sub-micron sized fallout into areas considered safe from fallout. The Cs-137 data from this study will serve as a reliable baseline of Cs-137 levels in the event of a future release of fallout. Keywords: Indiana; cesium-137; fallout ii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to Sophie Abbott. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people influenced my thinking and desire to pursue this research. First among these: Dr. Rick Venedam and Asa Von Sudderth who worked for the Nevada Test during my active duty recall with the Defense Threat Reduction Agency. A second group at Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Dr. (COL-Ret.) William A. Foley Jr, (COL-Ret.) Jim White, Dr. Abdul Sadeek, Denise Scroggins and Curtis Ramsey, at the School of Professional and Environmental Affairs; Dr. Vijay Lulla, Dr. Rick Bein, and Dr. Phil Roth of Geography; Dr. Gabriel Filippelli and Dr. William Gilhooly of Earth Sciences helped shape this work. In 2015, I transferred my studies to Ball State University where the faculty of the Natural Resources and Environmental Management (NREM) program provided further support. From the start, Dr. John Pichtel (Advisor) and the Dissertation Committee for this work: Dr. Amy L. Gregg, Dr. Joshua B. Gruver, and Dr. Jessique Ghezzi; and Dr. Petra Zimmermann (Geography) all provided encouragement. Dr. Jose Ramirez-Dorronsoro and Stan Ross of NREM and Dr. Roger Wessel and Dr. Serena Salloum of the Education Department, all guided my research methods. The long term friendship of (COL-Ret.) Dave Murphy, JD also made a difference. Colleagues from my government working career need mention: Dr. Gordon Riel, James Stafford, Jim Meyers from the Naval Surface Warfare Center. Steve Tilden, Joe Thompson, Tim Kelly, David Walls, Audra M. Upchurch, Roy Lindquist, Richard Schueller, Jim Winso, Linda Bray, Mike Gray, Ken Fagan, Stacy Wright, Brian Hrynyshen all supported DHS and made a difference following the 9/11/2001 response to terrorism. Bob Michaud and many uniformed CBP Officers helped in the development of training that reached 16,800 Officers. Mr. Art Morgan, and many others at FLETC always accommodated and supported new training ideas. Among those with special scientific insight, Dr. (COL-Ret) . Glen Reeves, MD, Dr. iv (CAPT-Ret.) Paul Blake (of DTRA) and especially CAPT John Cardarelli (US Public Health Service), John D. Kinneman and Dr. Satar Lodhi (of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission) provided technical comment going back nearly three decades along with William I. King, P.E., Paul P. Psomas and Stephen Malone. Inspiration came from members of several ANSI Committees, including Dave Hamel of (OSHA), Dr. Larry Hudson and Dr. Paul Bergstom (NIST), and Daniel Kassiday (FDA). Sean and Kelly Austin and Dr. Alan Fellman, always enjoyed training questions especially Eli Port and Aaron Morris at RSSI, Inc, Dr. Jim Schweitzer and his Radiation Safety Staff, especially Matthew Tang, at Purdue University showed the advantage of ORTEC systems. The Hoosier Health Physics Chapter has always provided inspiration. Family always assists: beginning with one's parents and siblings: Mom and Dad, Marie Mangino, RN PNP; Jim Whitman, PhD; John Whitman; and Patricia Whitman, JD. Lastly, I have the honor of stating that all of my children, Janet Abbott; David J. Whitman, JD; Thomas R. Whitman, and Joseph R. Whitman and seven grandchildren have provided both the wonder and joy that helps me continue to teach and to learn. Lynn, my wife, a patient mother, and college instructor has now started her doctorate work. v Table of Contents TITLE PAGE ................................................................................................................................ 1 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 1 Objectives: ................................................................................................................................. 3 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................................. 4 Fallout Defined .......................................................................................................................... 4 Earliest Atomic Tests ................................................................................................................ 5 Nuclear Weapon Designs ........................................................................................................ 10 Nuclear Weapons Tests .......................................................................................................... 11 Unintentional Effects from Testing ....................................................................................... 13 Later Atomic Tests, 1958 -1962 ............................................................................................. 14 Health Impacts from Fallout.................................................................................................. 20 Chernobyl and Fukushima Reactor Failures ....................................................................... 31 Behavior of Fallout Isotopes in the Biosphere ...................................................................... 35 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 38 CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENTAL METHODS........................................................................ 52 Site Selection for Soil Sampling ............................................................................................. 52 Sampling Location Requirements ......................................................................................... 54 Sample Collection, Preparation and Analysis ...................................................................... 54 Statistical Analysis .................................................................................................................. 58 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 59 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 60 Cesium-137 Retention as Affected by Precipitation ............................................................ 67 Cesium-137 Retention as Affected by Soil Clay Content .................................................... 70 Cesium-137 Retention as Affected by Combined Rainfall and Soil Clay Content ........... 74 vi Cesium-137 Deposition by Latitude ...................................................................................... 75 Potassium-40 and Lead-210 in Indiana Soil ......................................................................... 75 Statistical Considerations between Cs-137, Pb-210 and K-40 ............................................ 76 Soil pH Values ......................................................................................................................... 78 Limitations of the Current Study .......................................................................................... 79 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 80 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...............................................................