SCIENCE AND ETHICS Why science should not be kept separated from ethical issues: Ethics and Science should be morally intertwined. Ethics is necessary in providing a blueprint for what is morally permissible. This prevents the abuse of science, for reasons of human greed or power. Scientific progress that is unbridled and unchecked may not be a good thing. E.g. ethical concerns and controversies surrounding the issue of reproductive cloning result in laws to prevent the abuse of cloning technologies. Ethics emphasises the moral obligation which scientists have towards the community. Lab ethics, for example, demands that findings are based on truth (facts and empirical proof) and any breach of ethics is morally and legally unacceptable. The scientist should have a moral responsibility for his inventions/discoveries and should consider ethics against his perceived notion of the greater good. This ensures that scientific studies/findings are not fraudulent as this may lead to abuse as well as deceit and have an impact on public policy and in some cases, patient care. o South Korean scientist, Hwang Woo-Suk, was discovered to have fabricated his stem cell breakthroughs in 2005. He was fired from the prestigious Seoul National University and charged in court for research fraud. o Two Merck virologists were required by Merck to fake the efficacy test of a mumps vaccine. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) gives Merck monopoly on certain vaccines but it must maintain a high efficacy rate of about 95% (which is near impossible). Huge level of criminal fraud was discovered when human blood samples were spiked with anti-bodies from animal blood samples to inflate the vaccine’s efficacy findings. Ethics can help to ensure that Science is wielded for beneficial ends rather than for destructive purposes. Since the fundamental purpose of science is to improve man’s well-being, ethical guidelines, laws and policies must be implemented to keep it in check. o For example, ethics can ensure that Science is used for the good of mankind in areas like cures for diseases, uses of technology, nuclear technology, genetic engineering and eugenics policies. This ensures that scientific practice or progress is not undertaken at the expense of people’s detriment. Might cause some resentment in some religions which are against the idea of human scientists playing God. To preserve the sanctity of life (for example, to embark on stem cell research) we must first guarantee its integrity. Ethical guidelines that prevent the abuse of scientific research and development should be suggested and even enforced by the relevant authorities. Other examples of such issues that threaten the sanctity of life include euthanasia and abortion. Why science and ethics should be kept separate: Ethics and Science are fundamentally different and therefore, frequently come into direct conflict with each other. Ethics is subjective being concerned with values and morals which do involve a certain degree of personal judgement while science is objective and has the utilitarian aim of improving the lives of people. Ethics can limit and hinder scientific progress. o Stem cell research, whichbestfreepapers.com involves the creation and destruction of human embryos, is banned in parts of the US and some EU nations despite its potential to alleviate pain and save lives by replacing defective stem cells with healthy ones. In addition, some critics in America argued that embryonic stem cell research could not expand under the 2001 Bush policy that barred the National Institutes of Health from funding research on embryonic stem cells beyond using 60 cell lines that existed at that time. (In 2009, President Obama has since overturned the policy by lifting the ban on federal funding for embryonic stem cell research but pledging strict guidelines to ensure that this research will not involve reproductive cloning.) The enforcement of laws to uphold ethical standards greatly undermines personal freedom/individual autonomy as seen in the case of euthanasia, where one’s right to die is usurped by the state. This is a violation of human liberty, or the right of an individual to decide what to do with one’s life – one of the most fundamental rights of free societies. o Chantal Serbire (France) who suffered from a rare form of cancer and fought for the right to die through euthanasia. The interpretation of ethics is subjective and at times even problematic. In the case of a terminally ill patient, is it more ethical to introduce measures to prolong the person’s miserable life or mercifully end his suffering? o Chantal Serbire’s cancer severely disfigured her face, caused her to become blind and left her in great pain. Science is amoral. This means the job of the scientist is just to come up with scientific inventions and not decide how they should be used. Government agencies, religious leaders and the society should make such decisions. bestfreepapers.com - The BEST website to download FREE exam papers, notes and other materials from Singapore! How a fine balance can be achieved without compromising ethical concerns as far as possible: ‘Stem cell research will one day be a boon to humanity. We owe it to posterity to pursue it. But we also owe posterity a moral universe not trampled and corrupted by arrogant, brilliant science.’ (Charles Krauthammer) It is because of this that we need strict regulation: no human cloning, no embryos created solely to be harvested. Only discarded ones from abortion clinics. Sometimes moral compromises have to be made to ease human suffering and for the greater good: o Animal testing which is considered a form of cruelty to animals is necessary in testing certain life-saving drugs for the safety of humans. Every day, thousands of people are saved from painful diseases and death by powerful medical drugs and treatments. This incredible gift of medicine would not be possible without animal testing. o Euthanasia vs sanctity of life: Life-prolonging technology with its ability to prolong a patient’s life long after the quality of life had gone, has become a problem with late-state terminally ill patients or those for whom dying is prolonged torture. This has made euthanasia an issue today. For e.g., the Terri Schiavo case - after a long 7-year legal battle, her feeding tube was removed. Although euthanasia is illegal in many countries for ethical and other reasons, ultimately, end-of-life decisions are a question of choice: it must really depend on a case-by-case basis. o Ethical concerns might have to give way to pragmatism in a highly competitive and globalised world. For example, some may regard the use of embryos in stem cell research as unethical, but Singapore regards such research as crucial for Singapore’s biomedical industry, and there are profits to be made. For e.g., Singapore has Biopolis which is an international research and development centre for biomedical sciences. Summary Points: Ethics should be the very basis of science. However moral compromises may sometimes have to be made for the greater good. The best approach is to strike the balance between sound science and moral values. Contentious Issues : Pro-life vs Pro-choice Science should complement religion – but not always the case, sometimes there are controversial issues such as stem cell research, euthanasia etc. Human testing has been condemned as it goes against human rights (for example from WWII, Hitler using Jews as test subjects in concentration camps) inhumane biological experiments, goes against the moral fabric of the society. Animal testing too has been criticised for the pain and cruelty inflicted on animals when they are used as test subjects in laboratories. Solutions: Why can Science not complement religion? o Mutual understanding is required. o Not to deny that there have been scientists who are religious (Galileo Galilee who was a great scientist and a staunch Catholic) o Science and Religion acquire the same results but through different means. o When it comes to medical research, we should : make it affordable not contravene ethics not dehumanise (man/animal) ensure that there are no ulterior motives ensure no marginalisation of the weak/sick/poor have internationalbestfreepapers.com cooperation have State intervention (i.e. the State should ensure ethical concerns are addressed). SINGAPORE: BIOETHICS ADVISORY COMMITTEE and the ethical guidelines for Human Biomedical Research The Ethical Guidelines for Human Biomedical Research are intended to serve as an ethical resource for researchers and members of ethics committees or institutional review boards (IRBs). Institutions have the overall responsibility of ensuring the proper conduct of human biomedical research carried out in their premises or facilities; or by their employees or on their patients; or involving access to or use of human biological materials, medical records or other personal information in their custody. They are also responsible for ensuring research integrity. Ethical Guidelines: ( not full list) Consent – Consent for participation in research must be voluntary. There should be no coercion, deception or undue influence. Participants may be reimbursed for legitimate expenses. Any other payment, whether monetary or in kind, should not amount to an inducement, and should be approved by an IRB. Consent to participation in research should be documented in writing. – Keeping research participants in ignorance of a research hypothesis, or of which intervention group they have been assigned to, does not amount to deception. However, the need to keep participants ignorant of a research bestfreepapers.com - The BEST website to download FREE exam papers, notes and other materials from Singapore! hypothesis should be disclosed and justified to the satisfaction of an IRB. It is also best ethical practice to highlight to the participant the fact that, for methodological reasons, not all information concerning the research hypothesis and protocol will be revealed.