Exploring Transnational Families among Ecuadorian Migrant Workers in Spain: The Case of Cleaners in Madrid Cristen Lorena Dávalos Departments of Geography and Politics Queen Mary, University of London Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 1 Signed declaration I hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own. Signed: Cristen Lorena Dávalos 2 Abstract This research on Ecuadorian migrants working in cleaning in Madrid, aims to explore their transnational ties from a gendered perspective. It focuses specifically on the nature of transnational family relationships especially in relation to parenting. The conceptual framework draws from several fields of research including gender and transnational migration, transnational families, masculinities and migration, as well as studies on the low- paid labour market. Theoretically, the thesis argues that a gendered and transnational approach benefits from recent conceptualisations which highlight how gender is both relational and a key constitutive element of migration, but that more research is required on the role of men in the creation and sustainability of transnational families. In bringing together research on transnational families as well as that on migrant workers, this study contributes to the emerging field of gender and transnational migration by analytically disaggregating along the following lines and distinguishing between: productive and reproductive work; domestic and contract cleaning work; and transnational and reunited families. Drawing on a questionnaire survey with 100 respondents and a total of 75 in-depth interviews, among which 33 were conducted with Ecuadorian migrants employed in domestic and contract cleaning in Spain, and 11 with families in Ecuador, the empirical and conceptual contributions suggest that migrant workers experience gains and losses in relation to challenging gender ideologies that is directly tied to the ways in which they construct their familial relationships. On the one hand, migrant workers challenge pre- existing gender norms through migration and by creating alternative family forms, yet on the other hand, they reinforce traditional gender stereotypes through the desire to recreate conventional families through reunification. Overall, this research uncovered the complexities of transnational families and shows that the nature of family life after reunification is as important as the transnationality of families. 3 Acknowledgments I was fortunate to dedicate five years to studying a topic that I am truly passionate about. Carrying out the research and writing it up across different geographic spaces - including the UK, Spain, Ecuador, and Uruguay - would have been impossible without the help and support of a number of institutions and people. During the first three years as a doctoral student I received the financial support from a Research Studentship provided by the departments of Geography and Politics at Queen Mary, University of London. A grant from the Central Research Fund of the University of London also provided financial support for the fieldwork. I wish to especially thank Drs. Cathy McIlwaine and Anne Kershen for their team effort and unwavering support both academically and on a personal level. In the first case, Cathy believed in the importance of the topic and has been enthusiastic about the research throughout. Her leadership throughout the research and on several drafts of this thesis has been invaluable. Many thanks also to Anne for complementing Cathy‘s views with insightful and perceptive comments throughout the research. Their guidance was always constructive and their patience admirable. During my fieldwork I had the fortune of meeting and sharing with truly admirable people. I thank all those people who shared with me their experiences of migration and shared their fears, hopes, disappointments and achievements in Spain and in Ecuador. I wish to especially thank my personal contacts Rebeca and Silvia for opening so many doors and making me feel at home throughout my work. I am also inspired by the people who dedicate themselves to working with migrants. In Spain, I wish to thank the Colectivo Ioé, AESCO, the Catholic and Evangelical Churches, and all the other migrant associations for kindly giving me access to their premises to work with Ecuadorian migrants. In Ecuador, I wish to thank Gloria for offering me the opportunity to discuss, exchange, and publish work. Also, I wish to thank Carolyn, Gema and Jayani for being transnational colleagues and friends. Last but not least, I wish to thank Lori for spending hours editing the chapters of this thesis. Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to all my family for their unreserved support throughout the past years. I am especially thankful to Monica for inviting me into her home and life in London, to my mother Susan, and my father Diego, in Ecuador for always being present, and to my sisters Gaby and Alexis, and my brother Diego, and their beautiful children, for encouraging me despite geographic distance. Most of all I 4 wish to thank Sebastian, my love, for offering me his unconditional companionship, devotion, and support throughout this research process and in our life journey as migrants ourselves in The Netherlands, Belgium, the UK, Spain, Ecuador, and Uruguay. This thesis would not have been possible without you! I dedicate this work to Zully, my mother-in-law and my friend, who will never be forgotten, and to my daughter Julia who is just beginning her life. 5 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Acknowledgments 4 Table of contents 6 List of tables, graphs, figures, and plates 9 List of Abbreviations 10 1. Introduction: Gender, International Labour Migration and Transnational Families in Ecuador and Spain 11 2. Gender, International Labour Migration and Transnational Families: A Review 20 A Transnational Perspective on International Labour Migration 21 Gender and International Migration: Gendered Outcomes of Migration 24 Engendering Transnational Migration 25 Men, Masculinities and Transnational Migration 26 Historical and Current Trends in Domestic Work 27 Conceptual Perspectives on International Migration and Domestic Work 29 The Gendered Nature of Contract Cleaning 33 Cleaning Jobs across Private and Public Spaces 35 The Gendered Nature of the Transnational Families 35 Work-life Balance among Transnational Migrant Workers 39 Concluding Remarks 40 3. Gendered Nature of Transnational Migration from Ecuador to Spain 42 Ecuador‘s Socio-Economic and Political Context 42 Ecuadorian Migration: Patterns of Emigration and Immigration 45 Ecuadorian Transnational Migration and Public Policy 49 Ecuadorian Labour Migration to Spain 51 Overview of Spain‘s Labour Market 55 Domestic Work‘s ‗Semi-Legal‘ Standing in Spain 56 Contract Cleaning‘s Legal Standing in Spain 57 The Nature of Gender Equality in Ecuador 59 The Nature of Gender Roles, Relations and Identities in Ecuador 60 Changing Gender Relations, and Identities among Ecuadorian Migrants 61 Conclusion 63 4. Mixed Methods and a Multi-Local Approach to the Study of Gender and Migration 65 Researching International and Transnational Migration 65 A Gendered Analysis of the Study of Migration 66 6 Qualitative and Quantitative Methods for Studying the Gendered Nature of Migration 68 Methodological Framework of this Study 69 Access to participants in Madrid and Ecuador 72 Analysing Quantitative and Qualitative Data 76 Methodological Issues of Power and Representation in the Research 77 Working with Migrant Men and Women 77 Negotiating Ethnicity in the Research Process 80 Ethical Participation of Migrant Men and Women 82 Negotiating Positionality among Ecuadorian Migrants 83 Limitations and how Methodological Issues Affected the Research 84 Sample of the Informants Surveyed 87 Sample of the Interviewees in Madrid 92 Sample of the Transnational Families 95 Conclusion 96 5. The Migration of Ecuadorian Labour Migrants to Madrid 97 Reasons for the Migration of Ecuadorians to Spain 97 Decision-making Processes behind International Labour Migration 98 Choosing a Destination 99 Employment Opportunities in Madrid 101 Immigration Status 102 Integration in Spain 104 Discrimination in Madrid 104 Transnational Activities in Spain and in Ecuador 105 Conclusion 106 6. The Experiences of Ecuadorian Migrant Workers in Domestic Work and Contract Cleaning 107 Pre-migration Gender Ideologies around Paid Work 107 Men and Women‘s Motivations for Entering Paid Work in Madrid 109 Migrant Worker‘s Access to Domestic and Contract Cleaning 112 Labour Market Trajectories and Occupational Mobility 116 The Gendered Nature of Working Conditions 118 Professionalising Domestic Work and Contract Cleaning 120 Gender Differences in the Work Place 121 Negotiating Gender Relations with Colleagues 126 The Gendered Nature of the Employer-Employee Relationships 128 Gender Identities in the Employer-Employee Relationship 133 Labour Organising: the Role of Trade Unions 134 Conclusion 137 7. The Construction of Transnational Families 139 Decision-making Processes behind the Formation of Transnational Families 140 Gender Ideologies and Transnational Marriages in Spain 142 Transnational Parenting in Spain 144 The Gendered Nature of Communicating across Borders 147 Remittances and Transnational Families 151 The Construction of Transnational Families in Ecuador 154 7 Gendered Outcomes from Creating Transnational Families 158 Joining Parents in Spain: Attitudes towards Family Reunification 160 Conclusion 161 8. The Reconstruction of Transnational