© COPYRIGHT by Lynette A. Garrett 2012 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED To my parents, Dr. William and Gwendolyn Garrett, for their unwavering love and support CONFEDERATE NATIONALISM IN GEORGIA, LOUISIANA, AND VIRGINIA DURING THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865 BY Lynette A. Garrett ABSTRACT This dissertation revolves around the construction of Confederate identity in the states of Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia and adds regional specificity into the discussion of Confederate nationalism. The “hodgepodge” nature of the Confederacy only emphasized the importance of understanding the foundation of Confederate nationalism and its uniformity, not regional variations. Whether or not Confederate identity formation during the war transcended state and regional variation or differed from place to place within these three Confederate states is the important question this study addresses. Confederate nationalism was not monolithic. Instead, this project identifies five themes which allowed southerners in the states of Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia to construct an identity for themselves as Confederate citizens which they believed differed from the identity of their American counterparts. The five themes of Confederate nationalism were the American Revolution, religion, slavery, white supremacy, and states’ rights. The five themes needed to accentuate the common connections which bonded citizens in the Confederacy together, highlight the differences between Confederate and American citizens, and provide justification for the war. The first four themes of Confederate nationalism promoted unity regardless of geographic location while the fifth theme of Confederate identity, states’ rights, proved to be divisive. Within the state of Georgia, Governor Joseph E. Brown waged a campaign against ii conscription and the suspension of habeas corpus; two governmental policies he believed were detrimental to states’ rights. In addition to questions about Confederate identity formation, this project also explores the lives of free African Americans and Jews who called these three states of the Confederacy their home. This study adds free African Americans back into the historical narrative of Confederate nationalism and re-examines their role in the seceded states in detail. This dissertation asks how the presence of free people of color and Jews impacted Confederate nationalism. Did the presence of free African Americans and Jews sustain or hinder Confederate nationalism in Georgia, Virginia, and Louisiana during the Civil War? iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are a number of people that I would like to thank because when I began this dissertation journey more than six years ago, it seemed like such a daunting task. This process was made more manageable as a result of the numerous people who helped me as I went through this remarkable experience. I can say with one hundred percent certainty this project would not have been completed without the support of my committee chair, Professor Alan Kraut. In life sometimes you really need to trust your instincts and your gut. Seven years ago, my instincts told me I could not find a better advisor and committee chair than Alan Kraut and my instincts were correct. He provided insightful and thoughtful comments on my chapters, he wrote countless letters of recommendation for funding opportunities, and he always responded to my emails and provided comments on the manuscript in a timely manner. Perhaps one of the best pieces of advice he ever gave me was to write five pages a day and then stop when you knew what the following paragraph would discuss. When you sat down at your computer the following day, you immediately started typing and did not have the dreaded writer’s block. Professor Kraut, thank you so much for your constant support. It means more than you will ever know. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to the rest of the members of my committee. A suggestion made at my dissertation defense by Professor Tyler Anbinder of George Washington University about the organization of my chapters saved me time and frustration in the long run. Professor Kimberly Sims provided insightful comments and suggestions which proved to be beneficial as I began to work on my manuscript. Professor Jon Wakelyn traveled to Washington, D.C. in order to attend my defense and provided extensive comments that will improve the manuscript. I also iv thank him for putting me at ease before my defense began with these simple words, “You’re the expert and we’re here to learn from you.” In addition to the support I received from my committee, I was privileged to receive a number of fellowships which allowed me to conduct research at the Georgia Historical Society in Savannah, the Virginia Historical Society in Richmond, and at the Historic New Orleans Collection and Tulane University in New Orleans. The Andrew W. Mellon Research Fellowship from the Virginia Historical Society and two graduate student Mellon research fellowships from the College of Arts and Sciences at American University were invaluable. Additionally, the Spring Dissertation Fellowship from the College of Arts and Sciences at American University came at a critical juncture when I was editing my chapters and was therefore also extremely useful and appreciated. Two of the last people that I need to thank are my parents, Dr. William and Gwendolyn Garrett, who have always given me constant love and unwavering support. When I was in the process of writing my dissertation proposal, my dad had just been diagnosed with cancer. I remember when he told me from his hospital bed that he wished he was feeling better so that he could read my proposal and go over it with me. Unfortunately, he was never able to do so. Even though he passed away before I completed this project, I felt his presence with me every step of the way telling me I could do it. My mom has also been a constant source of support as I did research and wrote the dissertation manuscript. The cute cards she sent me whenever I reached an important milestone in this journey not only made me smile but made me determined to see it though. Plus, she never hesitated to help translate a diary entry if I had trouble doing so. As a result, I am certain she will always remember the lyrics to the song “Farewell to the Star v Spangled Banner” with fondness. Whenever I told her the task seemed too daunting, my mom always said “you can do it.” Well, Mommy and Daddy, I did it! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………….ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………………………………………………………………...…iv LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………..viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS…………………………………………………………………..ix INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..1 SECTION I: THE THEMES OF CONFEDERATE NATIONALISM 1: THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION………………………………………………...32 2: RELIGION………………………………………………………………………….75 3: SLAVERY AND WHITE SUPREMACY………………………………………….125 4: STATES’ RIGHTS…………………………………………………………….........166 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………...203 SECTION II: THE PHYSICAL MANIFESTATION OF CONFEDERATE NATIONALISM 5: “RALLY ‘ROUND THE FLAG”…………………………………………………..205 SECTION III: PERCEIVED THREATS TO CONFEDERATE NATIONALISM INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….243 6: AFRICAN AMERICANS: COERCED PATRIOTS OR SOUTHERN RIGHTS PROPONENTS?...........................................................................................................245 7: JEWISH CONFEDERATES……………………………………………………...285 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………309 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………321 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Population of Georgia………………………………………………21 1.2 Population of Louisiana…………………………………………….22 1.3 Population of Virginia……………………………………………...23 2.1 Number of Religious Churches by State…………………………...82 viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1.1 The Flags of the Confederate States of America…………………………….211 ix INTRODUCTION “The ordinance of secession was passed yesterday afternoon and was made public to day at 12. The excitement is intense. The mildest joy seems to prevail. All is war and bloodshed is the way of talk.”1 Robert A. Granniss, a clerk at Kent, Paine, and Company in Richmond, wrote in his journal about the feelings of his fellow Richmonders after the adoption of the Virginia secession ordinance. For Granniss, a southern transplant from New York, his diary entries up until April 1861 contained no outward anxiety about the election of Abraham Lincoln. While Granniss did mention Lincoln in his journal, along with the secession of Florida and Mississippi from the Union, he did so without adding any additional commentary. In fact, judging by Granniss’ words, initially he appeared not to take any stance on the issue of secession and refrained from saying whether or not he believed Virginia would be better off remaining in the Union or leaving it to join a confederation of southern states. On April 2, he wrote, “The Southern Confederacy is in full blast and Virginia still remains in the Union. The secessionists are gaining ground here and it is impossible to tell the ultimate result.” Based on what he wrote, it is not clear whether Granniss supported secession at this time. Granniss only spoke out in favor of secession after the attack on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861 and Lincoln’s subsequent call for 75,000 troops to put down “the rebellion.” After the firing on Fort Sumter and the passage of Virginia’s secession ordinance, Granniss readily admitted that his feelings “had undergone a radical change” and as a result, he saw “no course but secession.”2 Evidence suggests Granniss acted like the majority