Food sovereignty: alternative policy for a sustainable national food system in Timor-Leste under climate change Augusto Lourdes da Silva BSc (University of Southern Queensland), Grad. Dip. (Vrije Universiteit Brussel), MSc (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2016 School of Social Science ABSTRACT Globally, more than enough food is produced to feed the world’s nine billion people (a figure that is expected to peak in 2050). Yet despite this, every year almost one billion people experience food insecurity. The consequences of food insecurity are set to be greatly exacerbated by climate change; circumstances that will be acutely experienced in developing countries, where the intersection of poverty and food insecurity is often concentrated. In this context, Timor-Leste, as one of the least developed countries (UN, 1998; IPCC, 2007; McMichael, 2008), will stand to suffer the earliest and the most detrimental impacts of climate change for food security, unless substantive mitigation and adaption actions are taken. With this as context, this thesis examines the impacts of agri-food development policies for food security in Timor-Leste. Through the adoption of a critical political economy perspective, this thesis undertakes an historical analysis of the causes of food insecurity. It then explores food sovereignty as a possible pathway for rebuilding the current food system, particularly in the context of climate change. This approach contributes to extending sociological understandings of, and responses to, food insecurity in Timor-Leste; representing a departure from many earlier studies, which have centrally focused upon technical barriers to food security. Methodologically, the thesis adopts a constructivist approach, accepting that different realities exist across multiple stakeholders engaged in the food and climate change nexus, and that truth or knowledge claims are both constructed and relative. The thesis undertakes a comparative case study approach, through the selection of cases across three villages in Timor-Leste. Data from these cases is augmented by interviews with additional stakeholders, including politicians, NGOs, academics and students. A total of 130 interviews were conducted in this study. This was complemented with document analysis, observation and a seminar. The results show that post-independence Timor-Leste has embraced a modernist techno-fix development pathway to food security. This is an-elite driven approach, rendering local people with very limited roles in determining priorities, and unable to shape the form or outcomes of policies and programs. These development pathways have delivered limited benefits to the poor and vulnerable, as well as further widening the gap between the poor and rich. Despite this, the current government is seeking to solve Timor-Leste’s food security problems through continued agricultural modernisation and market liberalisation. This has i resulted in significant negative consequences, including nutrition transition, dependency on imported white rice, and increased dependence on the state as a food and service provider. This thesis concludes by arguing that the root cause of food insecurity in Timor-Leste is an outcome of political failures that disempower at both macro and micro levels. Ensuring good governance–which is important to enable democratic participation of all stakeholders to exercise their deliberative capacity to shape policies and their outcomes–will be a vital part of building food security in Timor-Leste. The food sovereignty paradigm, including its commitment to democratic governments; based on the principle that food is a fundamental human right; and the basis for healthy and sustainable livelihoods, offers important insights into rebuilding both democratic and sustainable food systems. While modernist techno-fix and market based approaches to addressing food security have not had significant positive impacts on the poor and vulnerable, food sovereignty also depends on a numbers of factors, including access to productive resources–including land– which enables communities to control their food system. Informed by food sovereignty, and broader deliberative governance thinking, this thesis concludes by arguing that rebuilding of the current food system will require what Moyer, McAllister, Finley & Soifer (2001) refer to as both reformer and radical change approaches; which translates into building cooperation between different stakeholders, as well as land and policy reform in order to allow those most in need to be able to provide food for themselves. Such transformations will be required to enable contemporary approaches to transforming food systems to create the basis for a sustainable, fair and just national food system in the context of climate change for Timor-Leste. ii DECLARATION BY AUTHOR This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iii Publications during candidature “No publications”. Publications included in this thesis “No publications included”. Contributions by others to the thesis “No contributions by others.” Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree “None”. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This PhD research has not been easy and sometimes it has been challenging intellectually and personally. Without the support and encouragement of many along the way, this thesis would never have been completed. First of all, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisors Associate Prof Kristen Lyons and Dr Peter Walters for their supervision, guidance, support, advice and critical comments on my work. They were very generous with their time to read and provide essential inputs for this thesis. Without their critical comments and our countless meetings, this thesis would have been impossible. Thanks also go to Dr Jarrod Kath, who has become a good friend since we pursued undergraduate studies at USQ in 2002 and has been reading and giving some comments on this thesis. To Prof Geoff Lawrence, Dr Carol Richards, Dr Gordon Peake, Associate Prof Andrew McWilliam, Dr Lia Kent, and Prof James Fox, thank you for providing feedback on some chapters of this thesis. Thank you also to Ms Julie Sanderson who was very generous with her time to professionally edit this thesis. My appreciation goes to the friendship of my fellow PhD students at UQ – Alphonse, Thao, James, Mark, Andrew, Laura and Muhamad. Thank you also to Keitha and Ben for their administrative assistance. Thanks to all of the participants—villagers, NGO representatives, government officials, students and politicians—who provided me with the essential information for this thesis. To Marist Brothers in Ashgrove and Enoggera, Especially Brother Tom Hickey and Bother Mark Paul, a big thank you for your support and assistance during the course of this journey. Thank you also to Ms Leanne Mead and family for their friendship and support in the later stage of this journey. To the Australian Commonwealth Government, thank you for sponsoring my PhD studies. Thank you to the Government of Timor-Leste for providing additional financial support for the fieldwork of this thesis. My mum and dad worked very hard to send me to school but could not share this moment with me as the God Almighty Father had a different plan for them. They both passed away while I was in the last stage of completing this thesis. Thank you very much and see you in the next life. To all my brothers and sisters, thank you for supporting me and my family in difficult times. v Finally, my deepest admiration goes to my wife, Nelia Soares da Silva. Without her love, understanding, support and encouragement, this journey would have not begun, let alone been completed. Nelia has made great sacrifice on my behalf to look after our beautiful children, Emmanuel and Vicka da Silva, who always bring me love and joy. vi Keywords food sovereignty, climate change, Timor-Leste, political economy, food security, Australian and New Zealand