The Colonizers and Their Colonized Ruth Grene Thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In Foreign Languages, Cultures, and Literatures Vinodh Venkatesh Jacqueline E. Bixler María del Carmen Caña Jiménez October 29, 2018 Blacksburg, VA Keywords: Mexico, New Spain, Colonialism, Post-Colonialism, Self/Other, Casta Paintings, Mexican Muralists, Golden Age of Mexican Cinema, Juan Rulfo The Colonizers and Their Colonized Ruth Grene ABSTRACT This study is concerned with the Self/Other dichotomy, originally formulated by scholars of South Asian history in the context of European imperialistic treatments of the peoples whom they colonized for centuries, as applied to Mexican history. I have chosen some visual, cinematic, and literary representations of indigenous and other dispossessed peoples from both colonial and post- colonial Mexico in order to gain some insights into the vision of the powerless, (the “Other”), held by the powerful (the colonizers, whether internal or external), especially, but not exclusively, in the context of race. Some public and private works of Mexican art from the 18th , 19th. and the 20th centuries are used to understand the perceptions of the Other in Colonial Mexico City, at the time of Independence, in state-sponsored pre and post-Revolutionary spectacles representing indigenous peoples, cinematic representations of the marginalized and the dispossessed from the Golden Age of Mexican cinema, and in the representation of the marginalized in the literary and photographic works of Juan Rulfo. I conclude that an ambivalent mixture co-existed in Mexican culture through the centuries, on the one hand, honoring the blending that is expressed in the word “mestizaje”, and on the other, adhering to a thoroughly Eurocentric world view. This ambivalence persisted from the 18th century through Independence and the Revolution and its aftermath, albeit in different forms. The Colonizers and Their Colonized Ruth Grene GENERAL AUDIENCE ABSTRACT Mexico presents an interesting contrast to the United States with respect to the history of race since colonization. The 16th century Spanish conquerors, and the colonizers who followed them, acknowledged the offspring of their unions with indigenous women, setting a tradition that resulted, by the 20th century, in mixed race peoples becoming the major component of the Mexican population. Despite this, there remained a sense in the culture that Europe and those of European descent were still the ideal towards which Mexico aspired, while from time to time, there were paradoxical displays, honoring the ethnic diversity that was New Spanish/Mexican reality. In light of this ambivalence, I have examined some literary and artistic examples of the perception of the colonizers, internal or external, of those whom they marginalized. Dedication This work is dedicated to the memory of my mother and my father, who each loved language, and books, and talking about meaning. iv Acknowledgements My biggest thanks goes to my advisor, Vinodh Venkatesh, without whom none of this would have happened. From gently, but firmly and persistently, persuading me that I, a senior citizen and a faculty member near retirement, could actually get a graduate degree in his subject to guiding me along this new educational path, he has been patient, tactful, and very supportive. I have learned so much from him, both one on one, and in those grueling intensive summer school classes! Any faculty member who is a consistent source of such energetic and perceptive insistence that one think hard, (even on the fourth hour of a summer’s afternoon class!) is a very special kind of teacher. I wish to thank Jackie Bixler for all that she taught me about things Mexican over the years, and for her encouragement during my graduate career in her department. Mari Carmen Jiménez’ classes were also invaluable opportunities for learning, and her advice has stood me in good stead as I navigated this second graduate career. Jonathan Hall, my closest friend of over thirty years, has been a wonderful sounding board for my ideas, and a perceptive critic of my writing. My son, Nick, has always encouraged me, which is very gratifying, since this entire enterprise started with him! Thanks to my Irish and Blacksburg families, especially my brother Nicky, and my granddaughter Nazyia, for accepting what may have seemed to be a rather eccentric endeavor. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ................................................................................................................................................. 1 Ambivalence and The Other: First Encounters ..................................................................................... 4 Mimicry, Mestizaje, and Lo Mexicano in Modern Mexico ................................................................ 10 Chapter 1. Race and Ideology in 18th Century Mexican Casta Paintings. Representation and Subversion ........................................................................................................................................ 17 Historical Origins. Two Republics, Emergence of One Mixed Population. ................................ 20 Representing Difference: “Science,” Ideology, and Casta Paintings ............................................ 29 Ideology and Identity: The painters, their works, and family life ................................................ 35 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................................... 44 Chapter 2. Mestizaje, and Its Antecedents. Ideology and Ambivalence Surrounding Race in Early 20th Century Mexico. .............................................................................................................. 47 Independence and Creole Patriotism .................................................................................................... 53 The Indian and the Indianesque in the Porfiriato ............................................................................. 55 The Mexican Revolution and Its Aftermath. Re-invention of the State ...................................... 61 Public Art and Revolutionary Ideals ...................................................................................................... 73 The 1921 Centennial Celebration ........................................................................................................... 75 Chapter 3. Film as Political Propaganda. Visions of Lo Mexicano ......................................... 80 Sex, Religion, and Ambiguity in Santa (1931). A Proposed Resonance with Mestizaje ........ 82 The Transformation of Mexican Film. A New Genre is Born .......................................................... 86 Political Propaganda in Río Escondido (1948) by Emilio “El Indio” Fernández ....................... 93 The Lack of Light in Los olvidados ........................................................................................................... 97 Indians, Class, and Gender in Chiapas. Balún Canán (1955) ....................................................... 103 vi From the Sublime to the Comic. A Subversive Portrayal of the Indigenous .......................... 107 Chapter 4. Juan Rulfo’s Art: Lo Mexicano Takes a Different Form ....................................... 111 Rulfo’s Images. Homogenizing Mexico, or Taming the Other ..................................................... 126 Rulfo and Cinema. Depicting the Ordinary ....................................................................................... 131 Observing the Observers ......................................................................................................................... 135 A Cynical Response to Rulfo’s Pictures. “Optical Tourism” ......................................................... 139 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 141 Conclusion: Mestizaje and The Shadow of Colonialism ........................................................... 143 Works Cited ............................................................................................................................................. 146 vii INTRODUCTION The colonial experience has outlived decolonization and continues to be related significantly to the concerns of our own time. (Guha 42) The quote above is from an essay by Ranajit Guha entitled “Subaltern Studies: Projects for Our Times and Their Convergence.” Both the title of the essay and the quote encapsulate the focus of my study. I have chosen some visual, cinematic, and literary representations of indigenous and other dispossessed peoples from both colonial and post-colonial Mexico in order to gain some insights into the vision of the powerless held by the powerful (the colonizers, whether internal or external), especially, but not exclusively, in the context of race. I present some selected perceptions over the centuries of those in power of dispossessed peoples in Mexico, seeking historical continuity where it exists, and attempting to identify fresh beginnings where that is possible. I argue throughout that, over time, those in power in Mexico, be they, depending on the historical context, peninsular, criollo or mestizo, showed an ambivalence which was infused with residual racism