Kungl. Tekniska Högskolan TRITA-INFRA 04-019 Royal Institute of Technology ISSN 1651-0216 Department of Infrastructure ISRN KTH/INFRA/--04/019-SE ISBN 91-7323-086-3 A BROWNING PROCESS The case of Dar es Salaam city Doctoral Dissertation Othmar S. Mng’ong’o Division of Urban Studies Stockholm 2004 ii To mama Gabriela Samamba and my late father Joseph Mng’ong’o iii iv Contents Acknowledgement xi Abstract xiii List of figures vii List of tables viii List of plates viii 1 The research problem and objectives 1 1.1 A global problem 1 1.2 Importance of green plants, spaces and structures 2 Green plants Green spaces Green structures 1.3 Threats to urban plants and green spaces 6 Influences of urbanization on the green 1.4 Need for an alternative approach to urban management 10 1.5 Research problem and objectives 11 1.6 Theoretical framework 12 1.7 Methodological approach 13 1.8 Organization of the study 14 2 Research method and techniques 2.1 Choice of research strategy 15 2.2 Research design and process 15 2.3 Selection of study areas 18 Selection of settlements Selection of residential blocks Selection of households for interviews 2.4 Data Collection 24 Mapping the green spaces and structures Interviews with individuals Focused group discussions 2.5 Summary of research issues and techniques 30 2.6 Validity and reliability 31 3 100 years of urbanization in Dar es Salaam 3.1 Geographical location 33 Ecological and physiographic features 3.2 Urbanization and green spaces 35 v 3.3 Development of green spaces and structures 35 Pre-formative period up to 1890 German formative period from 1891 to 1920 British foundation period from 1921 to 1961 Post independence period from 1961 to 2003 First decade of independence 1961 to 1974 Crisis period from 1975-1985 Period of conflicting rationality 1985 - 2003 4 Theoretical framework 4.1 Green city theory 52 Ecological city Green city form and sustainability Debate on sustainable city Sustainable city in developing countries 4.2 Green space theory 61 Green plants Green spaces Green structure Local needs of green plants and spaces in urban Africa Habitat island theory and conservations Browning process and forces behind it 4.3 Social Theory 74 Michael Maslow's hierarchy of needs Livelihood in Dar es Salaam The theory of a ‘common good’ 4.4 Planning theory 82 Theory of Social Structuration Theory of Communicative Action Communicative approaches to planning Civil society and associational life in urban Africa Associational life in urban Tanzania 5 Dynamics of green spaces at city level 5.1 Changes of green spaces 93 Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation 5.2 Development and the character of the city 100 5.3 Influence of development plans 103 5.4 Greening activities 103 5.5 Summary of findings at city level 105 5.6 Analysis 107 Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of green spaces vi Dar es Salaam city and sustainability Influences of development plans Greening activities 6 Dynamics of green spaces at settlement and block levels 6.1 Settlement level 118 6.1.1 Msasani Mikoroshini settlement 118 Building densifications Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Influence of development plans Greening activities 6.1.2 Sinza settlement 123 Building densifications Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Influence of development plan Greening activities 6.1.3 Msewe Baruti settlement 127 Building densification Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Influence of development plan Greening activities 6.2 Block level 132 6.2.1 Block A of Sinza 133 Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Influence of development plan Greening activities 6.2.2 Block B of Sinza 137 Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Influence of development plan Greening activities 6.2.3 Typical plot densification process 141 6.2.4 Block D of Msewe Baruti 142 Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Greening activities vii 6.2.5 Block F of Msewe Baruti 145 Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Greening activities 6.2.6 Typical plot densification process 147 6.3 Analysis 148 Quantitative changes of green spaces Qualitative changes of vegetation Influence of development plans Greening activities 7 Inhabitants concerns on the green environment 7.1 Individual concerns in Sinza 156 Supply of plants and spaces Use of plants and spaces Care of plants 7.2 Individual concerns in Msewe Baruti 163 Supply of plants and spaces Use of plants and spaces Care of plants 7.3 Summary of findings on individual concerns 167 7.4 Collective concerns in Sinza 168 Open spaces 3A Open space 9B 7.5 Collective concerns in Msewe Baruti 174 7.6 Summary of findings on collective concerns 177 7.7 Analysis of findings on individual concerns 178 Use of ‘on plot’ green plants and spaces Use of ‘off plot’ green spaces Concerns of women on green plants and spaces Rational or irrational? 7.8 Analysis of findings on collective concerns 183 Achieving a collective agenda 7.9 Linking findings with collaborative planning approach 188 Management potentials inherent in the local community Women’s collective concerns Place of a planner in the studied areas 8 Conclusions and suggestions 8.1 Ecological sustainable development-the European discussion 195 8.2 Ecological sustainable development-a sub-Saharan approach 196 8.3 Is Dar es Salaam ecologically sustainable? 198 vi 8.4 Suggestions for improvement 200 References 209 Appendices 218 List of Figures Figure 1.1 Industrial area in Msimbazi valley 7 Figure 1.2 Hotel Golden Tulip in Oysterbay Beach 7 Figure 2.1 Research design and process 17 Figure 2.2 Inner and outer cities in Dar es Salaam 20 Figure 2.3 Blocks of Sinza and Msewe 23 Figure 3.1 Ecological and physiographic features 34 Figure 3.2 Dar es Salaam in early 1890s 36 Figure 3.3 Zones of Dar es Salaam as per 1914 Bauordnung 39 Figure 3.4 The 1949 Dar es Salaam master plan 43 Figure 3.5 Dar es Salaam of 1950s 44 Figure 3.6 The 1968 Dar es Salaam land uses 47 Figure 3.7 Formal and informal cities of Dar es Salaam 50 Figure 4.1 Forms of ideal city 67 Figure 4.2 Typical example of islands 73 Figure 4.3 Conceptual and operational definitions of inhabitants concerns 81 Figure 5.1 Dynamics of green spaces at city level 94 Figure 5.2 Green environmental profiles of Dar es Salaam, 1982 95 Figure 5.3 Green environmental profiles of Dar es Salaam, 1992 96 Figure 5.4 Green environmental profiles of Dar es Salaam, 2003 97 Figure 5.5 Dynamic of green spaces in the inner city 98 Figure 5.6 Dynamics of green spaces in the inner and outer cities 99 Figure 6.1 Building densifications in Msasani Mikoroshini 119 Figure 6.2 Dynamics of green spaces in Msasani Mikoroshini 120 Figure 6.3 Dynamics of land uses Msasani Mikoroshini 121 Figure 6.4 Msasani Mikoroshini: formal plan and reality 122 Figure 6.5 Building densification in Sinza 124 Figure 6.6 Dynamics of green spaces in Sinza 124 Figure 6.7 Dynamics of land uses in Sinza settlement 125 Figure 6.8 Sinza: formal plan and reality 127 Figure 6.9 Building densification in Msewe Baruti 129 Figure 6.10 Dynamics of green spaces in Msewe Baruti 129 Figure 6.11 Dynamics of land uses in Msewe Baruti 130 Figure 6.12 Msewe Baruti : formal plan and reality 131 Figure 6.13 Block A of Sinza, 1992 133 Figure 6.14 Dynamics of land use in block A 134 Figure 6.15 Block B of Sinza, 1992 137 Figure 6.16 Dynamics of land uses in Block B 138 Figure 6.17 Typical plot densification process in blocks of Sinza 142 vii Figure 6.18 Block D of Msewe Baruti, 2002 143 Figure 6.19 Dynamics of land uses in block D 143 Figure 6.20 Block F of Msewe Baruti, 2002 145 Figure 6.21 Dynamics of land uses in block F 146 Figure 6.22 Typical plot densification in blocks of Msewe Baruti 148 Figure 7.1 Ministry’s attempt to develop open space 9B 171 Figure 7.2 Transformation of a gridded Roman colony into an Islamic city 190 Figure 8.1 Traditional plan, reality and the proposed ecological 203 improvement plan at city level Figure 8.2 Traditional plan, reality and the proposed ecological 206 improvement plan at settlement level Figure 8.3 Traditional plan, reality and the proposed ecological 207 improvement plan at block level Figure 8.4 How should the ecological improvement plan be made at plot 208 level? List of maps Map 2.1: Selected detailed study settlements 22 List of tables Table 2.1 Summary of research issues and techniques 30 Table 5.1 Density in urbanized areas in Dar es Salaam 101 Table 5.2 Population densification in Dar es Salaam 102 Table 5.3 Spatial growth of Dar es Salaam 102 List of plates Plate 1.1 Typical wear and tear in Dar es Salaam 8 Plate 3.1 Kariakoo of the 1960s 40 Plate 5.1 Fragments of the Mnazi Mmoja garden 104 Plate 5.2 Typical plant seedlings along the roads 104 Plate 6.1 Plants in plot fences in Msewe Baruti 132 Plate 6.2 Permanent building on space 3A. 135 Plate 6.3 Typical access road encroachment in block A, Sinza 135 Plate 6.4 Quality of green space 3A 136 Plate 6.5 Greenery in one of the access roads in block B 139 Plate 6.6 An access road in block B 139 Plate 6.7 Public green spaces 9B 140 Plate 6.8 Typical character of greenery in plots of block B 141 Plate 6.9 Public playground in block D Msewe Baruti 144 Plate 6.10 Green in one of the plot entrance in block D 145 Plate 6.11 Street stalls for commercial purposes in block F 147 viii Plate 7.1 Tanganyika thorns as fencing materials 158 Plate