AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE PHONOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL INTEGRATION OF GERMAN LOANWORDS INTO OSHIWAMBO A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (IN AFRICAN LANGUAGES) OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA BY JOHANNES UUSHONA 9233911 APRIL 2019 MAIN SUPERVISOR: DR PETRUS MBENZI CO-SUPERVISOR: PROF. MARIANNE ZAPPEN-THOMSON Abstract Oshiwambo, a Bantu language spoken in Northern Namibia and Southern Angola, like other languages in contact, has adapted foreign words from other languages to meet the needs of its daily life vocabularies and activities. This thesis is based on the hypothesis that words borrowed from other languages, especially European languages, into Oshiwambo, are phonologically and morphologically modified to fit the Oshiwambo speech system. The data were collected from school textbooks, daily conversations and personal vocabularies of the researcher. The study investigated how Oshiwambo borrowed words from German, yet the two languages differ widely in terms of phonemic inventories and phonotactics. Borrowing of words from German to Oshiwambo required phonological and morphological processes to enable the transfer of characteristics of one language into the other. The study identified and described the phonological and morphological changes which the loanwords from German go through to fit into the Oshiwambo speech system. The study further established the phonological rules that account for these changes. The study adopted the Natural Generative Phonology theory which was propagated by Hopper (1976) and the general word formation theory as the theoretical framework. The loanwords were transcribed for phonological and morphological analysis. It was evident that there were lots of vowel and consonant changes in the process of borrowing. It was also evident that Oshiwambo borrowed nouns, adjectives and verbs from German. Any word (noun) that had been borrowed from German was assigned a class based on semantics, phonology or morphology. The study contributes to the linguistic study in Oshiwambo in particular and Bantu languages in general. The knowledge acquired could be utilized by the institutions of higher learning too. It is recommended that more research like the current study should be conducted for the rest of the remaining European languages as source languages from which Oshiwambo has borrowed words, as a way to trace the origin of loanwords. i TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF FIGURES vi List of Acronyms and Abbreviations vii Acknowledgements viii Dedication ix Declarations x CHAPTER 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 2 1.3 Research questions 3 1.4 Significance of the study 3 1.5 Limitations of the study 4 1.7 Organisation of the study 4 CHAPTER 2 6 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 6 2.1 Introduction 6 2.2 Background of borrowing and loanwords 6 2.3 Reasons for borrowing 9 2.4 A difference between phonology and morphology 10 2.5 Loanword adaptation strategies 11 2.5.1 Phonological adaptation strategies 11 2.5.2 Morphological adaptation strategies 34 2.6 Allocation of loanwords to nominal classes 41 2.7 Theoretical framework 46 CHAPTER 3 50 METHODOLOGY 50 3.1 Introduction 50 3.2 Research design 50 3.3 Population 50 3.4 Sample 51 3.5 Research instruments 51 3.6 Data collection procedures 52 3.7 Data analysis 54 ii CHAPTER 4 57 AN OVERVIEW OF PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF OSHIWAMBO AND GERMAN 57 4.1 Introduction 57 4.2 The Oshiwambo Phonology 58 4.2.1 The vowel system 59 4.2.2 The consonant system 60 4.2.3 Phonological free variation among Oshiwambo dialects 65 4.3 The Oshiwambo morphology 73 4.3.1 Oshiwambo noun structure 73 4.3.2 Noun formation processes 78 4.3.3 Morphology of adjectives in Oshiwambo 81 4.3.4 Verb structure in Oshiwambo 83 4.3.5 Verb extensions 84 4. 4 Phonology and morphology of German 88 4.4.1 The vowel sounds in German 89 4.4.2 The consonant sounds in German . 91 4.4.3 Syllable structure in German 92 4.5 Morphology of German 93 4.5.1 Inflection 94 4.5.2 Derivation 96 CHAPTER 5 98 RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 98 5.1 INTRODUCTION 98 5.2 Phonological adaptation processes 99 5.2.1 Phonological processes in handling vowels 99 5.2.2 Phonological processes in handling consonants 104 5.2.3 Phonological processes in handling consonant clusters 108 5.2.4 Phonological free variations and loanwords . 113 5.3 Morphological adaptation processes 116 5.3.1 Prefixation 120 5.3.2 Suffixation 121 5.3.3 Reduplication 122 5.3.4 Substitution 122 5.3.5 Insertion/ epenthesis 123 5.3.6 Derivation 124 iii 5.3.7 Verbal extensions in loanwords 125 5.3.8 Adjectives borrowed from German 127 5.4 Allocation of German loanwords to the Oshiwambo nominal class system 128 5.4.1 Semantic assignment 129 5.4.2 Phonological assignment 132 5.4.3 Morphological Assignment . 134 5.5 Conclusion 135 CHAPTER 6 137 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 137 6.1 Introduction 137 6.2 Conclusion 137 6.3 Recommendations 140 REFERENCES 142 APPENDICES 149 Appendix A: Research Permission Letter 149 Appendix B: Loanword Corpus 150 Appendix C: Loanwords allocated to Classes 9 and 10 158 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 isiNdebele classes 1 and 2 prefixes 42 Table 4.1 Oshindonga Consonants 54 Table 4.2 Oshikwanyama Phonemic Consonants 57 Table 4.3 Free Variants among Oshiwambo dialects 59 Table 4.4 Oshiwambo Noun Gender-Number Markers 68 Table 4.5 German Vowels 80 Table 4.6 Consonant Sounds in German 82 Table. 5.1 Three Types of Vowel Epenthesis 98 Table 5.2 Consonant Tolerance in Loanwords 101 Table 5.3 Phonological Free Variants and Loanwords 103 Table 5.4 Oshiwambo Nominal Class Chart 106 Table 5.5 Derivation 112 Table 5.6 Semantic Assignment Cl 1 and 2 115 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1 Oshiwambo Vowel Chart 53 Figure 4.2 German Vowel Chart 83 vi List of Acronyms and Abbreviations adj. - adjective Afr. – Afrikaans C - Consonant CC - Consonant and Consonant sequence Cl. - noun class CV - Consonant and Vowel sequence Eng. - English MBESC - Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture of the Republic of Namibia Pl. - Plural Sing. - Singular V - Vowel v. - Verb Vd - Voiced consonant Vless - Voiceless consonant vii Acknowledgements First and foremost, my honour and gratitude go to the Almighty God, for His love and assistance - through whom it became possible for me to produce this thesis. My sincere thanks go to Mwaala Senior Secondary School board, and management members of 2015-2017 for understanding my request to pursue my studies. I am particularly thankful to my fellow language teachers at the same school, who accepted to share my teaching load amongst themselves while I was furthering my studies. My special thanks go to Omusati Regional Education Directorate for approving my two- year study leave. I truly appreciate all efforts made by my two supervisors Dr Petrus Mbenzi and Prof. Marianne Zappen-Thomson, who developed me to think critically and to work hard to come up with this well produced thesis. I would love to thank my two fellow students: Silke Blaauw and M. Nel whom I have used as research assistants in assisting me with the realisation of German phonology during data collection. A special word of thanks also goes to my dear wife Martha Ndashulilwa Uushona and our three lovely children Amutse, Nelago and Taamba for patiently waiting for me to complete this valuable task. Lastly, let me thank everyone who has lent me a helping hand and assistance in making this thesis become reality. I honestly thank you all, and may God bless you. viii Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my late paternal grandfather, Max Tsheetheni Uushona, who was one of the early teachers and preachers in Uukwaluudhi district and at Tsandi congregation. It was through him that the enlightenment of education reached me. The dedication also goes to my parents, siblings and nieces: Nandjambi and Nangula; and nephews: Elungi and Tshikongo, for all the consistent support and encouragement they offered me during my study. ix Declarations I, Johannes Uushona, declare hereby that this study is a true reflection of my own work and is a true reflection of my research, and that this work, or part thereof has not been submitted for a degree in any other institution. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by means (e.g. electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior permission of the author, or The University of Namibia in that behalf. I, Johannes Uushona, grant The University of Namibia the right to reproduce this thesis in whole or part, in any manner or format, which The University of Namibia may deem fit. …………………… ………………… ……………….. Johannes Uushona Signature Date: April 2019 x CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Namibia is a multilingual community with 15 recognised languages taught in schools (MBESC, 2003). There are three language families in Namibia, namely Indo- European languages, Khoesan languages and Bantu languages (Maho, 1998). Matras (2009) states that most societies in today’s world are multilingual due to the language contact which occurs when speakers of different languages interact, and their languages influence each other and borrowing of words occurs as well. Many Europeans came to the territory known today as Namibia during the 19th century of which the most were traders, hunters, missionaries and explorers. They were Portuguese, Dutch and German amongst others. These Europeans interacted with indigenous people and exchanged goods such as ammunition, alcohol and clothes with the indigenous people and in return they got cattle, metals, ivory and skins (Mbumba, 1988).