James W. Cortada Change and Continuity at IBM: Key Themes in Histories of IBM IBM has been the subject of considerable study by historians, economists, business management professors, and journalists. This essay surveys the various writings on the company, placing their contributions in a roughly chronological account of the company’s history, from its early days in tabulating through to its dominance of global markets in computing. The essay includes well-known studies of IBM in addition to more obscure accounts. It emphasizes the need to consider the com- pany’s culture along with its technological and managerial changes in order to grasp the reasons for its longevity. Keywords: IBM, Thomas J. Watson Sr., Thomas J. Watson Jr., Arthur K. (Dick) Watson, Herman Hollerith, IBM World Trade Corporation his essay provides a guide to the voluminous writings on IBM by Thistorians and by others whose work is useful to historians, including IBM employees and management and technology experts. This is a global history and looks at sources in English and in other lan- guages. To do so, it also traces briefly the continuities and discontinuities in IBM’s strategy and culture over time, and highlights key events in its history.1 1 For general works on IBM, see Robert Sobel, I.B.M., Colossus in Transition (New York, 1981); Saul Engelbourg, International Business Machines: A Business History (New York, 1976); James W. Cortada, Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, and Remington Rand and the Industry They Created, 1865–1956 (Princeton, N.J., 1993); Emerson W. Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, Mass., 1995). On IBM as part of the computer industry see Jeffrey R. Yost, The Computer Industry (Westport, Conn., 2005). On IBM’s role in policies, see D. M. Hart, “Red, White, and ‘Big Blue’: IBM and the Business-Government Interface in the United States, 1956–2000,” Enter- prise and Society 8, no. 1 (2007): 1–34, which includes a useful account of IBM’s lobbying efforts; see also Hart’s earlier article, “IBM in American Politics, 1970–1999,” Business and Economic History 28, no. 2 (1999): 49–59; Steven W. Usselman, “Unbundling IBM: Antitrust Business History Review 92 (Spring 2018): 117–148. doi:10.1017/S0007680518000041 © 2018 The President and Fellows of Harvard College. ISSN 0007-6805; 2044-768X (Web). Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.22, on 27 Sep 2021 at 03:52:36, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007680518000041 James W. Cortada / 118 To provide an overview of IBM’s experience and its historiography, I discuss the company’s history in roughly chronological order–and much of the value of the essay resides in the footnotes. These chronolog- ical divisions are essentially those adopted by historians and others writing about IBM, but remain rough at best as no one period ended and a new one emerged in a particular year. This essay divides the com- pany’s history into five parts: the early history into the 1930s; the tabu- lating era; the company’s move to becoming a computer company; the era of global dominance, 1960s–1980s; and finally the company’s embrace of a new culture in response to crisis. This approach, inevitably, causes continuities from one era to another to be overlooked or be too minimized, while transformations might be overstated. To create some continuities, two overarching themes weave through the entire discus- sion: one, transformations, consistencies, and countervailing tensions in IBM’s behavior over time; and, two, the nature of its legendary “strong” culture, what IBM’s CEO in the 1990s, Louis Gerstner, critically called “deeply inbred and ingrown.”2 This essay hopes, also, to bring together the vast literature on IBM that has been created by different disciplines. Historians have been par- ticularly interested in IBM’s responses to its relations with governments (especially with that of the United States), with its markets, and with the role of the father-son Watson family that managed IBM from 1914 to and the Incentives to Innovation in American Computing,” in Sally H. Clarke, Naomi R. Lamoreaux, and Steven W. Usselman, eds., The Challenge of Remaining Innovative: Insights from Twentieth Century American Business (Stanford, 2009): 249–79 which pro- vides an excellent analysis of IBM’s antitrust problems; on contemporary comments regarding IBM, International Data Corporation, IBM and the Courts: A Six Year Journal (Framingham, Mass., 1975). About economic depressions and wars, see Cortada, Before the Computer, 144– 48, 189–221. Kevin Maney provides a thorough discussion of the depression years based on Watson’s papers demonstrating the firm’s creative responses to economic crises and later to world wars, The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas J. Watson, Sr. and the Making of IBM (Hoboken, N.J., 2003): xxii, 120–25, 154–56, 189–90, 242, 293–306, 309–14, 389. 2 Louis V. Gerstner, Who Says Elephants Can’t Dance: Inside IBM’s Historic Turnaround (New York, 2002), 189. On the persistence of culture, see, for the period 1920s–40s, Walter D. Jones, “Watson and Me: A Life at IBM,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 24, no. 1 (2002): 4–18; on 1930s–50s, Ruth Leach Amonette, Among Equals: A Memoir: The Rise of IBM’s First Woman Corporate Vice President (Berkeley, 1999) and Luis A. Lamassonne on Latin America, My Life with IBM (Atlanta, 2000); on 1950s–60s, W. W. Simmons, Inside IBM: The Watson Years: A Personal Memoir (Pittsburgh, 1988); on the 1970s and 1980s, James W. Cortada, “Carrying a Bag: Memoirs of an IBM Salesman, 1974–1981,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 34, no. 4 (2013): 32–47; on 1970s– 80s, Milton Drandell, IBM: The Other Side: 101 Former Employees Look Back (San Luis Obispo, Calif., 1984); David Mercer, The Global IBM: Leadership in Multinational Manage- ment (New York, 1988), and most familiar to IBM historians, Emerson W. Pugh, Memories that Shaped an Industry: Decisions Leading to IBM System 360 (Cambridge, Mass., 1984) and Thomas J. Watson Jr., Father, Son & Co., the latter covering the 1930s–1971. Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.22, on 27 Sep 2021 at 03:52:36, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007680518000041 Change and Continuity at IBM / 119 1971.3 Economists commented on its dominance in both the tabulating and mainframe markets and the implications for antitrust activities.4 There is a large literature on IBM’s research and development, and about its technologies, written by both IBM employees and others outside the firm.5 Journalists contributed well over half the books pub- lished on IBM, often, too, focusing on the role of the two Watsons, or on Herman Hollerith, inventor of punch-card tabulating equipment.6 Every time IBM ran into financial difficulties, reporters published books forecasting the demise of the firm.7 Professors of managerial 3 For example, Steven W. Usselman, “IBM and Its Imitators: Organizational Capabilities and the Emergence of the International Computer Industry,” Business and Economic History 22, no. 2 (1993): 1–35; Richard S. Tedlow, The Watson Dynasty: The Fiery Reign and Troubled Legacy of IBM’s Founding Father and Son (New York, 2003); James W. Cortada, The Computer in the United States: From Laboratory to Market, 1930 to 1960 (Armonk, N.Y, 1993); Watson Jr., Father Son & Co.; Lars Heide, Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion, 1880–1945 (Baltimore, 2009). 4 In defense of IBM’s market behavior, see Franklin M. Fisher, James W. McKie, and Richard B. Mancke, IBM and the U.S. Data Processing Industry: An Economic History (New York, 1983); Franklin M. Fisher and John J. McGowan, Folded, Spindled, and Muti- lated: Economic Analysis and U.S. vs. IBM (Cambridge, Mass., 1983); critical of IBM, Richard Thomas DeLamarter, Big Blue: IBM’s Use and Abuse of Power (New York, 1986); and for a broader discussion of IBM’s role as part of the U.S. Government’s promotion of the computer industry in the 1950s–70s, Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Govern- ment, Industry, and High Technology (Washington, D.C., 1988) and his earlier volume, Tar- geting the Computer: Government Support and International Competition (Washington, D. C., 1987); and an often overlooked economic analysis of IBM’s performance in the 1950s and 1960s, Alvin J. Harman, The International Computer Industry: Innovation and Comparative Advantage (Cambridge, Mass., 1971). 5 The essential works are Charles J. Bashe, Lyle R. Johnson, John H. Palmer, and Emerson W. Pugh, IBM’s Early Computers (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), Emerson W. Pugh, Lyle R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer, IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems (Cambridge, Mass., 1991) that look at technological, institutional, and manufacturing aspects of technology devel- opment and production; Heide, Punched-Card Systems and the Early Information Explosion that contains much about patent fights and innovations prior to the arrival of the computer; the now iconic guide to how to run large IT projects based on the S/360 experience by Frederick P. Brooks Jr., The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering (Reading, Mass., 1975); on IBM’s AS/400s of the 1980s, Roy A. Bauer, Emilio Collar, Victor Tang, Jerry Wind, and Patrick Houston, The Silverlake Project: Transformation at IBM (New York, 1992); and crucial for understanding how IBM’s work fit into the broader context of the tech- nical history of computing, Paul E. Ceruzzi, A History of Modern Computing, 2nd ed.