BRITAIN AT THE BIRTH OF BANGLADESH Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Angela L. Debnath University College London 2012 2 ABSTRACT British intelligence reports from 1971 describe how Pakistan suffered acute instability after central government forces attempted to quash the East Pakistan nationalist movement, sparking guerrilla resistance, massive refugee flight and extensive social disorder. Much of the British media, political opposition and public sided with the nationalists, accusing government forces of violating human rights, and even of genocide. The British government, in contrast, declared it would not interfere in a civil war with ‘hideous atrocities…being committed on both sides’. While intent on neutrality and non-interference, officials continued deliberating on how to react to the crisis as it evolved. British responses, which extended to aid and bilateral diplomacy, were thus shaped by a number of contextual factors—particularly the nature of intelligence reports from the region, public and parliamentary pressure, Cold War geopolitical constraints and, as expected, strategic calculations of Britain’s interests on the subcontinent. The British position, of course, was not entirely spontaneous nor did it always relate directly to the crisis, but more generally to the post-war context in which the Heath government functioned. Reflecting both self-interest and genuine concern, British responses to the East Pakistan crisis that ultimately led to the birth of Bangladesh, provide insights into a markedly under-researched episode of nationalist conflict in a former British colony. They reveal the complex challenges that the multi-layered violence posed to external observers, and in doing so, undermine the widespread tendency to cast the violence exclusively as either civil war or genocide. Finally, they illustrate the ambiguities of this juncture in British history when, apparently ready to accept its secondary power status, Britain still sought with varying degrees of success to retain international stature, resulting in a dualistic foreign policy towards South Asia that combined reserve with cautious initiative. 3 CONTENTS Abstract 2 Acknowledgments 4 Personalities 6 List of Maps and Abbreviations 8 Preface 10 I. Introduction..…………………………………….……………………13 II. British Intelligence on the East Pakistan/Bangladesh Crisis…….…51 III. British Responses: Description and Analysis……………..…………71 i. Diplomacy……………..…………………….…………………..…71 ii. Domestic Responses & the Question of Genocide……….......…….92 iii. Aid.…………………………..……………………………………106 iv. Neutrality & Non-Intervention.…….....…………………………..117 IV. Historical Context……………..…………………….………….……164 i. 1970 – 1974: The Heath Government…..…………………….……166 ii. 1947 – 1971: Anglo-Pakistani & Anglo-Indian Relations.………...191 V. Conclusion…..………………..………………………………………213 Bibliography……………….…………………………………………………230 Appendix……………………….………………………………………..……244 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis, from beginning to end, has been shaped by countless people. The following is an inevitably incomplete attempt to demonstrate my gratitude. I wish to thank the Hebrew and Jewish Department at UCL for funding during the first three years—and for the constant encouragement of its staff and professors, especially, Michael Berkowitz, Ada Rapoport-Albert, Lia Kahn-Zajtmann and the late John Klier. I also thank the many helpful librarians and archivists who helped me navigate through the substantial holdings at the UK National Archives, the Institute of Historical Research, the Institute of Commonwealth Studies, as well as the South Asian collections of the British Library, the University of Toronto and the London School of Oriental and African Studies. Academically, the scholarly integrity and dedication of Jacques Kornberg, Rebecca Wittmann, and the late Eric Markusen, were formative in the early phases of my work in Holocaust and genocides studies. Since then, I owe much to enlightening exchanges with fellow researchers examining Britain and/or Bangladesh 1971, particularly Mahmud Ali, Iain Cochrane, Bina D’Costa, Nayanika Mookherjee, Dirk Moses, Richard Pilkington and Yasmin Saikia. To my good fortune, Ornit Shani has proved an unexpected yet invaluable mentor during the long final phase of completion. I am, as ever, grateful to colleagues and students at the American University of Rome, especially James Walston, for a stimulating environment in which to teach, and to share my research over the years. On a personal level, I thank Imre Rochlitz, a source of profound inspiration. Anders Lustgarten has never hesitated to offer pertinent and animated feedback on my work, in all its forms. I will always be indebted to family and friends in London, Rome, Canada and beyond, for their unshakeable faith, and willingness to hear about my research and offer their suggestions—and even, on occasion, their homes while I 5 travelled in search of sources, or when I simply needed a room of one’s own. Joseph Rochlitz, my kindred other, has given me boundless strength throughout the many phases of this project; his support has been vital. Lastly, with love, I thank my sisters, my mother and my father—for everything. These are the people who have made a positive contribution to this thesis; I alone am responsible for its contents. 6 PERSONALITIES1 Britain The Conservative Party Edward Heath (1916 – 2005) Prime Minister (19 June 1970 - 4 March 1974) Alec Douglas-Home (1903 – 1995) Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (1970 - 1974) Peter Carrington (1919 –) Secretary of State for Defence (1970 - 1974) Richard Wood (1920 – 2002) Minister for Overseas Development (1970 - 1974) Douglas Hurd (1930 –) Political Secretary to Prime Minister (1970 - 1974) James Ramsden* (1923 – ) Member of Parliament; parliamentary delegation to Pakistan and India (21 June - 3 July 1971) Toby Jessel* (1934 – ) Member of Parliament; parliamentary delegation to Pakistan and India (21 June - 3 July 1971) The Labour Party Harold Wilson (1916 – 1995) Leader of the Opposition (1970 - 1974) Michael Foot* (1913 – 2010) Member of Parliament; Shadow Cabinet (1970 - 1974) John Stonehouse (1925 – 1988) Member of Parliament Arthur Bottomley (1907 – 1995) Member of Parliament; parliamentary delegation to Pakistan and India (21 June - 3 July 1971) Reginald Prentice (1923 – 2001) Member of Parliament; parliamentary delegation to Pakistan and India (21 June - 3 July 1971) The Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) John Noble Graham* (1926 – ) Principal Private Secretary to Foreign Secretary (1969 - 1972) Nicholas John Barrington* (1934 – ) Assistant Private Secretary to Foreign Secretary (1968 - 1971) Ian McCluney* (1937 – ) Assistant Private Secretary to Foreign Secretary (1969 - 1971) The South Asia Department of the FCO Iain Sutherland (1925 – 1986) Department Head (1969 - 73) John Birch* (1935 – ) India Desk (1971 - 1972) Andrew Stuart* (1928 – ) Pakistan Desk (1971 - 1972) 1 An asterisk indicates officials whom the author has interviewed or exchanged correspondence with. 7 Richard Fell* (1948 – ) Pakistan Desk (1971-1972) The United Nations Economic and Social Department of the FCO Keith Gordon MacInnes (1935 – ) Official (1970 - 1974) I.K.C. Ellison (1942 – ) Official (1971) West Pakistan General Yahya Khan (1917 – 1980) President (25 March 1969 - 20 December 1971) Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1928 – 1979) Leader of the Pakistan People’s Party (1969 - 1979) President (20 December 1971 - 13 August 1973) British High Commission, Islamabad Cyril Pickard (1917 – 1992) High Commissioner (1966 - June 1971) John Laurence Pumphrey (1916 – 2009) High Commissioner (June 1971 - 1976) Peter Smith* (pseudonym) Official (1971 - ) East Pakistan General Tikka Khan (1915 – 2002) Martial Law Administrator (February - September 1971) Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (1920 – 1975) Leader of the Awami League (1963 - 1975) Prime Minister of Bangladesh (12 January 1972 - 26 January 1975) British Deputy High Commission, Dacca2 Frank Sargeant (1917 – 2007) Deputy High Commissioner (1970 - June 1971) Arthur Collins* (1931 – ) First Secretary Political (1970 - 1972); Acting Deputy High Commissioner (June - September 1971) Rae Britten (1920 – 1997) Deputy High Commissioner (November 1971 - 1972) American Consulate General, Dacca Archer Blood (1923 – 2004) Consul General (1970 - June 1971) India Indira Gandhi (1917 – 1984) Prime Minister (24 January 1966 - 24 March 1977) British High Commission, New Delhi Terence Garvey (1915 – 1986) High Commissioner (1971 - 1973) 2 The spelling of ‘Dacca’ changed to ‘Dhaka’ in 1983. This thesis uses the earlier spelling. 8 MAPS A. Pakistan 1947 – 1971 p. 9 B. Refugee Camps in Indian provinces bordering East Pakistan – November 1971 p. 107 ABBREVIATIONS CAB Cabinet Office FCO Foreign and Commonwealth Office ICJ International Commission of Jurists PEU Pakistan Emergency Unit PREM Prime Minister’s Office SAD South Asia Department UKNA The National Archives of the United Kingdom UN E&S Dept United Nations Economic and Social Department of the FCO 9 3 MAP A: PAKISTAN 1947-1971 3 Source: http://www.clothmen.com/map-of-pakistan.php. Reproduced by permission. 10 PREFACE This thesis has developed significantly since its conception. A few words on its evolution may be useful to the reader before approaching the work in its entirety. The project, in essence, was born of my desire to learn why the crime of genocide—the intentional destruction of human groups—appears to be a hallmark of our time, and why external powers that might have intervened (either morally