Copyright by Tera Kimberly Maxwell May 2011 The Dissertation Committee for Tera Kimberly Maxwell certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: IMPERIAL REMAINS: MEMORIES OF THE UNITED STATES’ OCCUPATION IN THE PHILIPPINES Committee: Ann Cvetkovich, Co-Supervisor Kimberly Alidio, Co-Supervisor Brian Bremen Nhi Lieu Helena Woodard IMPERIAL REMAINS: MEMORIES OF THE UNITED STATES’ OCCUPATION IN THE PHILIPPINES by Tera Kimberly Maxwell, B. A., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2011 Dedication For those who shall be destroyed shall speak unto them out of the ground, and their speech shall be low out of the dust, and their voice shall be as one that hath a familiar spirit . and their speech shall whisper out of the dust. 2 Nephi 26:16 from the Book of Mormon This work is dedicated to my Filipino and Mormon ancestors on both shores. To my indigenous ancestors—the voices crying from the dust—, I hope my words honor and appease your memories. Acknowledgements As I am reminded often, it takes a village to raise a child and write a dissertation. I am grateful for help on both fronts. First of all, I express my gratitude to Ann Cvetkovich, my advisor, whose candid encouragement kept me connected to my vision, tough questions pushed the limits of my thinking, and incisive comments forced me to hone my writing. I cannot thank her enough for continuing to be invested in my work, even when I felt adrift from university life. I extend my appreciation to Kimberly Alidio, my advisor, for her support and insightful comments that helped me to situate my work within Filipino studies. I give thanks to the members of my dissertation committee: Brian Bremen, Nhi Lieu, and Helena Woodard, for their support, generosity, and combined expertise. During my time at University of Texas at Austin, Geraldine Heng and James Kyung-Lee were each influential at early stages of my project. I am grateful for the teaching assistantships that gave me financial support. I found friendships and intellectual nourishment within the Ethnic/ Third World Literature Group. The readers of my dissertation group: Lisa Avery, Alison Perry, Susan Briante, Jennifer Williams, Hulya Yildiz gave me comments and support in early stages of this process. I am especially indebted to Lisa Avery, Alison Perry, Lauren Igantz, and Kristine Kotecki, who supported me in the final stages of revision. I also express my appreciation to Robert Penman in Graduate Studies. In my early academic years, Stacy Burton has been an inspiring mentor and friend. I am grateful for the guidance I received from Kathy Boardman, Phil Boardman, Jane Detweiler, Jen Hill, and Dennis Dworkin. I am indebted to Esra Mirze Santesso, for her friendship, support, and lively conversation. I extend my utang na loob to the core group of the Center for Babaylan Studies: Leny Mendoza Strobel, Lily Mendoza, Lane Wilcken, Virgil Apostol, Perla Daly, Mila v Coger, Frances Santiago, Venus Herbito, Letecia Leyson, Lorial Crowder, and Lizae Reyes. Within this spiritual and intellectual community I have found my home. During my research trip in the Philippines, I am thankful to my aunt Roxanne Abiol who helped me find my footing. My aunt Mama Lea helped watch my baby so I could work. Sr. Mary John Manzanan and The Institute of Women’s Studies at St. Scholastic College were so gracious to me. I am thankful to Virginia J. Pasalo, Women in Development Foundation, Pangasinan Provincial Library, Fe Mangahas, and Fe Andico, Marot Flores, and Alma Quinto. I am grateful to Trevor Plante who was so helpful at the United States National Archives in College Park, Maryland. Even though I critique the lack of Filipino narratives at the National Museum of the Pacific War in Fredericksburg, Texas, I am ever grateful to Mike Lebens and the Nimitz Education and Research Center for making this research possible. I express my appreciation for the childcare that made writing possible. I am grateful to Maria Marquall, Leah, Ahn, Cathy Escapita, Brooke Reinhart, and the faculty and staff at Barbara Gordon Montessori, Cornerstone Montessori, and St. Croix Montessori School. My grandparents Al Lopez and Flossie Lopez deserve special recognition. They gifted me their stories, so central to my project, and a love of my Filipino history. I am thankful to my family: Terry Allen, Gail Allen, Randi Allen, Jared Allen, Trevor Allen, Alyson Allen, Jason Allen, Austin Allen, Lynne Lopez, Alvin Allen, Marjorie Allen, Maryjo Maxwell and Gary Maxwell. Your histories are intertwined in this history. I give special recognition to my children Jalen, Jayce, and Malena Maxwell, who have made my journey worthwhile. They have gifted me patience, love, and laughter. And lastly, this project would not be here without the support of Alan Maxwell, my eternal companion and life- long love. Thank you for sharing this dream with me. vi IMPERIAL REMAINS: MEMORIES OF THE UNITED STATES’ OCCUPATION IN THE PHILIPPINES Publication No._____________ Tera Kimberly Maxwell, Ph. D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2011 Supervisors: Ann Cvetkovich and Kimberly Alidio The history of the United States’ occupation in the Philippines requires an alternative archive that includes family stories, museums sites, and other memories to articulate the nearly inexplicable legacy of imperial trauma. My project foregrounds the intangible effects of American imperialism, traced in generational memories of Filipinos and Filipino Americans and their descendants. Addressing three key moments defining the Filipino and Filipino American experience: the Philippine-American War, World War II, and 21st century global capitalism, I look at how the under-the-surface, banal nature of imperial trauma’s legacy marks Filipino identity and creates blind spots in the Filipino imaginary. My dissertation examines sexual atrocities committed by American soldiers during the 1898-1902 Philippine-American War, revisits memories of World War II and the Japanese Occupation as represented in military museums in Fredericksburg, Texas and on Corregidor Island, Philippines, and concludes with the importance of the babaylan figure, from an ancient priestess tradition in the Philippines, for diasporic Filipinas to negotiate the contemporary challenges of everyday living. My dissertation examines the use of strategic storytelling to recover lost histories, heal from the past, and re-create the present. vii Table of Contents LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. IX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.............................................................................................. X CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 2 I. Introduction.............................................................................................................................2 II. Filipino Studies ......................................................................................................................8 III.Trauma, Melancholia, and memory ................................................................................... 28 IV. Alternative Histories and the Archive................................................................................ 37 CHAPTER 2: RESISTING THE FOOTNOTE: RAPE DURING THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR ........................................................................................................................................... 53 I. Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 54 II. An “Unsuccessful” Rape ..................................................................................................... 64 III. A Model Citizen in the Tropics......................................................................................... 69 IV. Miller: Military Justice on the Islands ............................................................................... 77 V. Gang Rape: Conine, Danphoffer, McBennett .................................................................... 87 VI. Other Encounters .............................................................................................................. 92 VII. Conclusion: Leonara, the Warrior Woman ..................................................................... 97 CHAPTER 3: RECONCILING EMPIRE: MEMORIES OF WAR AT THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF THE PACIFIC WAR AND CORREGIDOR ............................................................................ 105 I. Introduction........................................................................................................................ 105 II. Trauma, Memory, and the Military Museum................................................................... 113 III. Archival Violence: Artifact, Archive, Memory................................................................. 123 IV.The Ruins of Corregidor ................................................................................................... 140 V. Conclusion........................................................................................................................ 155 CHAPTER 4: URDUJA THROUGH THE LOOKING GLASS: BEYOND IMPERIAL TRAUMA..... 158 I. Introduction.......................................................................................................................