PARKING ISSUES AND POLICIES TRANSPORT AND SUSTAINABILITY Series Editors: Stephen Ison and Jon Shaw Recent Volumes: Volume 1: Cycling and Sustainability Volume 2: Transport and Climate Change Volume 3: Sustainable Transport for Chinese Cities Volume 4: Sustainable Aviation Futures TRANSPORT AND SUSTAINABILITY VOLUME 5 PARKING ISSUES AND POLICIES EDITED BY STEPHEN ISON Transport Studies Group, Loughborough University, UK CORINNE MULLEY Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, The University of Sydney Business School, Sydney, Australia United Kingdom À North America À Japan India À Malaysia À China Emerald Group Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK First edition 2014 Copyright r 2014 Emerald Group Publishing Limited Reprints and permission service Contact: [email protected] No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-78350-919-5 ISSN: 2044-9941 (Series) ISOQAR certified Management System, awarded to Emerald for adherence to Environmental standard ISO 14001:2004. Certificate Number 1985 ISO 14001 BIG YELLOW TAXI They paved paradise And put up a parking lot With a pink hotel, a boutique And a swinging hot spot Don’t it always seem to go That you don’t know what you’ve got Till it’s gone They paved paradise And put up a parking lot. BIG YELLOW TAXI Words and Music by JONI MITCHELL Copyright r 1970 (Renewed) CRAZY CROW MUSIC All Rights Administered by SONY/ATV MUSIC PUBLISHING 8 Music Square West, Nashville, TN 37203 All Rights Reserved Used By Permission of ALFRED MUSIC CONTENTS LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Stephen Ison and Corinne Mulley 1 CHAPTER 2 PARKING POLICY Greg Marsden 11 CHAPTER 3 PARKING SUPPLY AND URBAN IMPACTS Christopher McCahill and Norman Garrick 33 CHAPTER 4 PARKING DEMAND John Bates 57 CHAPTER 5 THE HIGH COST OF MINIMUM PARKING REQUIREMENTS Donald Shoup 87 CHAPTER 6 PARKING CHOICE Sarah Brooke, Stephen Ison and Mohammed Quddus 115 CHAPTER 7 PARKING PRICING Michael Manville 137 CHAPTER 8 PARKING MANAGEMENT Tom Rye and Till Koglin 157 vii viii CONTENTS CHAPTER 9 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PARK-AND-RIDE AS A POLICY MEASURE FOR MORE SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Graham Parkhurst and Stuart Meek 185 CHAPTER 10 CARFREE AND LOW-CAR DEVELOPMENT Steven Melia 213 CHAPTER 11 THREE FACES OF PARKING: EMERGING TRENDS IN THE U.S. Rachel R. Weinberger 235 CHAPTER 12 PARKING SUPPLY AND DEMAND IN LONDON David Leibling 259 CHAPTER 13 EXPLORING THE IMPACT OF THE MELBOURNE CBD PARKING LEVY ON WHO PAYS THE LEVY, PARKING SUPPLY AND MODE USE William Young, Graham Currie and Paul Hamer 291 CHAPTER 14 A PARKING SPACE LEVY: A CASE STUDY OF SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA Stephen Ison, Corinne Mulley, Anthony Mifsud and 317 Chinh Ho CHAPTER 15 A CASE STUDY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF A WORKPLACE PARKING LEVY IN NOTTINGHAM Simon Dale, Matthew Frost, Jason Gooding, 335 Stephen Ison and Peter Warren CHAPTER 16 ON-STREET PARKING Wesley E. Marshall 361 Contents ix CHAPTER 17 PARKING IN GUANGZHOU: PRINCIPLES FOR CONGESTION REDUCTION AND IMPROVING QUALITY OF LIFE IN A GROWING CITY Rachel R. Weinberger and Lisa Jacobson 381 CHAPTER 18 CONCLUSIONS Corinne Mulley and Stephen Ison 409 ABOUT THE AUTHORS 417 INDEX 427 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS John Bates Independent Consultant, UK Sarah Brooke Transport Studies Group, School of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK Graham Currie Institute of Transport Studies, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia Simon Dale Nottingham City Council, Nottingham, UK Matthew Frost School of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK Norman Garrick Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA Jason Gooding Nottingham City Council, Nottingham, UK Paul Hamer Department of Transport, Planning and Local Infrastructure, Melbourne, Australia Chinh Ho Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, The University of Sydney Business School, Sydney, Australia Stephen Ison Transport Studies Group, School of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK Lisa Jacobson Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates, Boston, MA, USA xi xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Till Koglin Transport and Roads, Lund University, Lund, Sweden David Leibling Independent Consultant, UK Michael Manville Department of City and Regional Planning, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA Greg Marsden Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK Wesley E. Marshall Department of Civil Engineering, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA Christopher McCahill State Smart Transportation Initiative, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA Stuart Meek Southern Rail, London, UK Steven Melia Centre for Transport and Society, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK Anthony Mifsud City of Sydney, Sydney, Australia Corinne Mulley Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies, The University of Sydney Business School, Sydney, Australia Graham Parkhurst Centre for Transport and Society, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK Mohammed Quddus Transport Studies Group, School of Civil and Building Engineering, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK Tom Rye Transport and Roads, Lund University, Lund, Sweden Donald Shoup Department of Urban Planning, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA List of Contributors xiii Peter Warren Nottingham City Council, Nottingham, UK Rachel R. Weinberger Nelson\Nygaard Consulting Associates, New York, NY, USA William Young Institute of Transport Studies, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Stephen Ison and Corinne Mulley ABSTRACT Purpose À This chapter provides an introduction to parking issues and policies. It seeks to place parking in the context of transport demand management (TDM) and takes as its tenet that parking is primarily a land-use issue. It outlines the types of parking which exist and why the management of parking is all important when addressing the policy goals of impacting on traffic congestion, tackling the issue of air pollution, stimulating economic activity or aiming to improve road safety. Methodology/approach À This chapter discusses the role played by parking as a TDM measure and its various facets most notably pricing and regulation, the prioritisation of land for particular uses, such as Park and Ride, or indeed car free developments. Findings À The chapter reveals the complex nature of parking from both the supply and demand side. The demand is driven by the kind of activity involved be it for commuter, retail or other reasons. Clearly, the type of housing stock and residential density impact on parking demand at the start point of the journey, whereas at the destination, the type of employment and the duration of parking are significant factors. Car parking is not homogeneous, since it can be found in various locations and provided by different bodies, be that the public or private sector. Parking: Issues and Policies Transport and Sustainability, Volume 5, 1À9 Copyright r 2014 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved ISSN: 2044-9941/doi:10.1108/S2044-994120140000005015 1 2 STEPHEN ISON AND CORINNE MULLEY The cost of parking is an issue not simply in terms of the land take, cost of construction and maintenance but also searching for parking and the time involved. Practical implications À The management of parking is important as part of a package of measures commonly implemented by authorities and one which needs to be understood alongside land-use planning. It is an area involving conflict between parking supply, demand, revenue raising and economic development. Originality À The book offers a clear understanding and insight into the area of parking and its issues and policies. The book uses case studies where appropriate providing originality in the area of parking and effective management approaches. Keywords: Parking; demand; supply; management; policy; planning Car parking is an issue that everyone will have an opinion on whether it relates to the lack of available spaces, the price, parking fines or quality of provision. Parking is a sensitive area impacting on shoppers, retailers, commuters, employers, leisure users, local residents and local authority decision makers who have to manage this resource in an efficient and effec- tive manner. Parking and its provision, pricing and regulation are part of the toolbox which form part of a package of measures that can be used to impact on traffic congestion, address traffic related air pollution, or indeed raise revenue to fund selected infrastructure investment. In managing park- ing, a number of issues are raised including the boundary effects resulting from the implementation