RE-EXAMINING ETHNIC IDENTITY IN MYANMAR By Sarah L Clarke Seng Aung Sein Myint Zabra Yu Siwa 1 Cover Photo: @ Seng Aung Sein Myint Graphic Design: Karlien Truyens Publication Date 31 May 2019 RE-EXAMINING ETHNIC IDENTITY IN MYANMAR By Sarah L Clarke Seng Aung Sein Myint Zabra Yu Siwa 2 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census………………………………………………………………5 This Report……………………………………..………………………………..…………………………………………………...7 Acknowledgements…………………………………..………………………………..…………………………………..……10 List of Acronyms…………………………………..………………………………..………………………………………..…..10 CHAPTER 1 Historical Overview…………………….………………………..………………………………..………………………….…12 The Era of Hero-Kings: dominant historical narratives and alternative views………………………..12 British Colonial Rule………………………..………………………………..……………………………………….…………16 Political Administration Under Colonial Rule Ethnic Classification Under Colonial Rule World War II and Independence………………………..………………………………..…………………………….…18 The Second World War Independence: the Panglong Agreement and 1947 Constitution Parliamentary Democracy and Military Takeover of 1962………………………..…………………………..21 Military Rule Under Ne Win: 1962 - 1988………………………..………………………………..………………...23 The Concept of Taingyintha Efforts to Move Beyond Military Rule: 1988 - 2008………………………………………………………….…..26 Ceasefires and the Drafting of a New Constitution CHAPTER 2 Ethnic Identity Narratives and Their Institutionalisation………………………..……………………………..31 Narratives and Assumptions Surrounding Ethnic Identity………………………..……………………………31 Theme 1 - There is a Correlation Between Population Size and Entitlements Theme 2 - Communities Are Homogenous and Ethnic Identity is Fixed Theme 3 - Communities Should be Stationary and Tied to Ethnic Homelands Theme 4 - Outsiders Pose a Threat The 2008 Constitution………………………..………………………………..………………………………………………38 Views on Ethnicity within the 2008 Constitution Designation of Territorial Units Arrangements for Political Representation Dilemmas Surrounding a Collective Rights Approach in the Myanmar Context…………………….42 CHAPTER 3 Ethnic Identity Dilemmas in Myanmar’s Current Context of Transition…………………………………44 The Lead up to Elections in 2010 and the Thein Sein Presidency………………………..…………………44 The Nationwide Ceasefire New National Leadership and Next Steps in the Peace Process………………………..…………………..47 Federalism in Myanmar: divergent approaches to collective rights Ethnic Identity Beyond the Peace Process………………………..………………………………..…………………49 3 CASE STUDY………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………….…....51 The Case of Kachin Identity………………………..………………………………..……………………………….…52 The Case of Arakanese Identity………………………..………………………………………………………………74 The Case of Karen Identity………………………..……………………………………………………………..………94 CONCLUSION Building Unity by Embracing Diversity………………………..………………………………..……….……….112 Challenging Ethnic Identity Narratives………………………..………………………………..…………….….114 Trust-Building, Political Legitimacy and Openings for Autonomy and Self- Determination……………………………………………………………………………………………………...………..117 Rethinking the Concept of Taingyintha and Engaging with Complexity…………………………..118 Bibliography………………………..………………………………..…………………………………………………....…120 4 INTRODUCTION in order to develop a deeper understanding of why collection of ethnicity data in the 2014 Since its independence from Britain in 1948, census proved so problematic. the country of Burma, also known as Myanmar, has experienced decades of armed The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing conflict focused on issues related to ethnic Census identity. Over generations, ethnic-based conflicts have produced severe humanitarian In 2014, Myanmar undertook its first national and human rights consequences for many, census in 30 years. Enumeration was carried including death and injury, displacement, out between 30 March and 10 April, led by the gender based violence, and a lack of access to Ministry of Immigration and Population1 with basic services. A focus on ethnic support from the United Nations. The categorisation and ethnic identity narratives overarching goal of the census was to provide has also contributed to systems and structures data needed for actors working at different that have institutionalised discrimination levels to undertake development planning, against some while allocating benefits and policy formulation, and service delivery. It entitlements to others, producing a landscape took place within a broader context of of deep fractures, inter-group competition, transition that saw renewed efforts to and distrust. improve socio-economic wellbeing in a country suffering from widespread poverty, The purpose of this report is to re-examine invigorate peacebuilding activities after many ethnicity from the perspective of diverse years of armed conflict, and support a Myanmar stakeholders. Emerging from a transition to partial democracy after half a closer examination of historical experiences century of military rule. and grievances, this report seeks to uncover the ways that ethnic identity has been used The census was approached as a technical for a variety of political purposes. The exercise that would shed light on essential objective of this analysis is to bring complex demographic variables such as population root causes of armed conflict in Myanmar to density, composition of the population in the surface in order to better consider and terms of age and sex, educational attainment, identify strategies that address long-standing labour force participation, access to housing, tensions and violence. The report concludes sanitation, and transportation, as well as by considering a range of recommendations information about fertility and mortality. It aimed at multiple Myanmar stakeholders, was a challenging undertaking in a country including leaders from a variety of ethnic that includes populations living in remote communities, the Myanmar government, and communities, including some areas under the international actors. control of armed groups. Access to education in Myanmar varies widely, and in many By way of introduction, this report will take a communities the national language, closer look at the events and reactions that Myanmar, is not a first language, or spoken at arose around the inclusion of ethnicity in the all. Additionally, communities to be 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing enumerated were in a process of emerging Census. This report will not provide a detailed from years of military rule. In this context, exploration of the census. However, the questions regarding basic socio-economic experience of the 2014 census offers a useful indicators provoked deep suspicion among departure point, highlighting a number of many. deep complexities surrounding ethnic identity in Myanmar. Indeed, the following pages of 1 The Ministry of Immigration and Population would this report will draw on a number of sources become the Ministry of Labour, Immigration and Population (MOLIP) after the 2015 elections. 5 It was also an exercise that provoked non-Bamar3 communities were deeply widespread confusion. Households were opposed to the government’s use of a familiar with the longstanding practice carried controversial list of 135 national races to out by the Ministry’s Department of classify ethnic categories. Immigration (DoI) to collect household registration lists, and had difficulty Friction came to a head during the distinguishing between that process and a enumeration period when violent protests census.2 Furthermore, the census was broke out in Rakhine State in reaction to the scheduled to take place approximately 18 prospect that, under the principle of self- months prior to the 2015 elections, and some identification, respondents would be allowed assumed that the data collection was directly to self-identify as Rohingya. In an effort to related to election preparations. avert further escalation of violence, the government then announced that However, some of the strongest reactions to respondents would not be enumerated if they the 2014 census emerged around collection of self-identified as Rohingya, leaving much of data on religion and ethnicity. The inclusion of the population of northern Rakhine out of the questions on religion and ethnicity sparked census. In addition, some parts of Kachin State deep controversy and concern, pointing to the and Kayin State remained unenumerated as it profound sensitivities surrounding these two was not possible for the government and aspects of identity in the Myanmar context. some local armed actors to agree on a process Collection of religious data generated anxiety for the enumeration exercise to go forward in that census results might further damage certain areas under the control of Ethnic already tense intercommunal relations. Armed Organisations (EAOs). Notably, in some Collection of ethnicity data provoked deep other areas under armed group control the opposition from many different communities enumeration went forward and collaboration due to concerns about how ethnic groups in these areas between the government and would be categorized and what political the relevant armed groups was successful. determinations would be made on the basis of the data. Many stakeholders from Myanmar’s While challenges related to unenumerated areas were noted, a team of international observers reported that the quality of the 4 overall enumeration was quite high. 2 Household registration provides a record of all Provisional results from the census were individuals residing in each household in Myanmar. available in August 2014, followed