Evaluating Habitat Use of Female Moose in Response to Large Scale Salvage Logging Practices in British Columbia, Canada by Alexandra Francis Bachelor of Natural Resource Science, Thompson Rivers University, 2010 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in the School of Environmental Studies University of Victoria © Alexandra Francis, 2020 Victoria, British Columbia, Canada All rights reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ii Supervisory Committee Evaluating the Habitat Use of Female Moose in Response to Large Scale Salvage Logging Practices in British Columbia, Canada by Alexandra Francis Bachelor of Natural Resource Science, Thompson Rivers University, 2010 Supervisory Committee Dr. Jason T. Fisher, School of Environmental Studies Co-supervisor Professor John P. Volpe, School of Environmental Studies Co-supervisor iii Abstract Supervisory Committee Dr. Jason T. Fisher, School of Environmental Studies Co-supervisor Dr. John P. Volpe, School of Environmental Studies Co-supervisor Global biodiversity is in decline as a result of unprecedented human alterations to the earth’s land cover. Understanding the ecological mechanisms of these large-scale changes in biodiversity is imperative in furthering our knowledge on the effects these alterations may have on animal behaviour and consequently on populations, allowing researchers and managers to effectively conserve species. During the last decade, there have been reports of moose populations both increasing and decreasing in North America due to a variety of factors (e.g., climate change, habitat disturbance, disease, etc.). Within British Columbia, wildlife managers have reported moose population declines of up to 50 – 70%, while other areas have remained stable. These changes have coincided, spatially and temporally, with the largest recorded mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreak. The outbreak resulted in extensive logging and road building in attempts to recover economic value from the beetle killed trees, resulting in drastic changes to the landscape. Understanding the effects that a highly disturbed landscape has on a species is critical for effective management and conservation. To investigate this, I examined the seasonal response of female moose to landscape change caused by the Mountain Pine Beetle outbreak and attendant salvage logging infrastructure in the Interior of British Columbia on the Bonaparte Plateau. First, I used a cluster analysis framework to develop biologically relevant seasons for female moose using individual movement and habitat use. I then used this temporal framework to develop seasonal home ranges iv for each individual moose. Second, I modelled the seasonal habitat selection of female moose to examine how moose respond to salvage logging infrastructure (i.e., dense road network and extensive cutblocks) using resource selection functions in an information-theoretic framework. We tested whether predation risk, forage availability or the cumulative effects of salvage logging best predicted moose space-use. Moose movement data clustered into five biologically relevant seasons, which were consistent with our biological and ecological knowledge of moose in the study area; however, these seasons and the size of the range differed from other seasons defined using alternative methods in the region. Across all seasons, the cumulative effects of forage availability and risk best predicted female moose distribution. In the calving and fall seasons, the top risk model best predicted moose habitat selection while the top forage availability model better explained moose habitat selection in spring, summer, and winter. Our results identified the importance of defining biological seasons using empirical data and how these seasons can differ from arbitrarily defined seasons, as well as the implications these can have in subsequent analysis and management. Additionally, we found that moose are seasonally trading the benefits of foraging for predation risk in these highly disturbed landscapes, using some aspects of salvage logging. My results bring perspective on how moose are using a highly disturbed landscape at the seasonal scale and a nuanced approach to landscape management. v Table of Contents Supervisory Committee .................................................................................................................. ii Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ ix Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: General Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Context .................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Research Focus and Objectives ............................................................................................ 5 1.3 Thesis Structure .................................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Literature Cited ..................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2: Biological seasons defined by cluster analysis provide a different lens on seasonal fluctuations in home-range sizes for moose.................................................................................. 12 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 12 2.2 Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 15 2.3 Methods............................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.1 Moose Location Data ................................................................................................... 18 2.3.2 Determining Biological Seasons .................................................................................. 18 2.4 Results ................................................................................................................................. 22 2.5 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 24 2.6 Management Implications ................................................................................................... 30 2.7 Literature Cited ................................................................................................................... 31 vi Chapter 3: Female Moose Prioritize Forage Over Mortality Risk Seasonally .......................... 35 3.1 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 35 3.2 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 36 3.3 Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 40 3.4 Methods............................................................................................................................... 44 3.4.1 Moose Location Data ................................................................................................... 44 3.4.2 Development of GIS Spatial Layers ............................................................................ 45 3.4.3 Habitat Selection .......................................................................................................... 47 3.4.4 Determining Biological Seasons .................................................................................. 47 3.4.5 Resource Selection Function Models........................................................................... 48 3.5 Results ................................................................................................................................. 50 3.5.1 Biological Seasons ....................................................................................................... 51 3.5.2 Habitat Selection .......................................................................................................... 51 3.6 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 57 3.7 Management Implications ................................................................................................... 63 3.8 Literature Cited ................................................................................................................... 64 3.9 Appendix A: Chapter 3 Supplementary Information .........................................................