ECOFEMINSM: TOWARDS INTEGRATING THE CONCERNS OF WOMEN, POOR PEOPLE AND NATURE INTO DEVELOPMENT by JYTTE NHANENGE submitted in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject DEVELOPMENT STUDIES at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: DR. S. P. TREURNICHT FEBRUARY 2007 Abstract Ecofeminism perceives an interconnection between the domination of women and poor people, and the domination of nature. This domination is founded on modern, Western, patriarchal, dualised structures, which subordinate all considered as "the other" compared to the superior masculine archetype. Hence, all feminine is seen as inferior and may therefore be exploited. This is presently manifested in the neo-liberal economic development ideal. Its global penetration generates huge economic profits, which are reaped by Northern and Southern elites, while its devastating crises of poverty, violence, environmental destruction, and human rights abuses makes life increasingly unmanageable for Southern women, poor people and nature. Feminism and ecology have therefore come together aiming at liberating women, poor people and nature. They want to change the dualised, reductionist perception of reality into a holistic cosmology. Ecofeminism consequently aims to integrate the concerns of women, poor people and nature into development. Key terms ecofeminism; feminism; women, environment and development; gender issues; poverty issues; global crises; patriarchal domination; post-modernism; post-development; development theory; environmental ethics; development ethics; feminist critique of science, economics and technology; Smuts' holism; yin and yang; systems theory; alternative world-views; ecological movements; Green Belt movement; Chipko movement. i Dedication To my husband and best friend, Felisberto Elija Nhanenge, who never learned to perceive reality according to the Western dualised structures that lead to domination. He brought care and a sense of emotional balance into my life. ii Acknowledgement My warmest gratitude goes to Leanne Tracy Brown, who has functioned as my subject librarian for some years now. I am eternally grateful for her extraordinarily kind and tireless efforts to find exactly those references that I needed. Her high level of professionalism and her caring assistance made the work much easier for me. Since I live 1700 km. from Pretoria, in a small Mozambican town with insecure postal services, I do not know what I could have done without Leanne's willing help. I have in general enjoyed the service of UNISA's library staff. During my many years of study, those individuals I have had contact with, have all been professional, quick and reliable to find, copy and send material. The library is a force in UNISA. I am grateful to my supervisor Stephan Treurnicht for staying by my side during the long and hard process of exploring this subject. It was not always clear what I wanted to write, and how to integrate the material, a fact that would get me upset. However, that did not seem to bother Stephan. Instead, he displayed a good and energetic mood, sending me SMSs for courage. I value such consideration. I must also comment on Stephan's high level of intelligence, his fast way of reading, his ability to get a quick overview of a comprehensive material and perceiving connections. Stephan particularly improved chapter 2 and 3 by suggesting that I incorporate Smuts' holism and Norgaard's co- evolutionary perspective. I only realised when it was done, how much sense the advice made. Thank you Stephan and keep well. I would like also to thank the Department of Development Studies for making inspiring, forward- looking, alternative and radical material available during my years of study. I have enjoyed the diverse views on development issues, which have been presented. My choice of subject is not in line with the mainstream thoughts. It has therefore been of great importance for me, that I could study at a university where there is flexibility and space for alternative ideas. I believe that Viktor E. Frankl expresses this well in his book "Man's search for meaning" (1985: 178), "My interest does not lie in raising parrots that just rehash 'their master's voice', but rather in passing the torch to independent and inventive, innovative and creative spirits." I believe the Department of Development Studies does that. Additionally, I would like to thank lecturer, Mr. Naas du Plessis, from the department, for drawing my attention to the works of Marthinus Versfeld, which was instrumental for my understanding of the yin/yang manifestation in the modern society. iii I also need to send my gratitude to Mrs. Cecile H. Maree at the Registrar, Documentation M&D Section at UNISA. I appreciate her professional efficiency, her quick response to my many questions, and her flexible approach to the delivery of my dissertation. She waited for my dissertation a whole year. When it finally was ready and sent, her caring attention gave me a feeling of safety. Although the parcel with my work was lost in the mail for a period, it still arrived safely and on time, but only due to Mrs. Maree’s determination to find it. On a more private note, I warmly thank my husband for his support and never fading trust in my ability to complete this study. From the beginning, he felt a natural connection to the subject and continuously encouraged me to stay with it, also when the process got painful. To give my dissertation a higher priority, he postponed his own Masters research in psychology and took over all practical and domestic duties. Furthermore, he patiently sat up nights, carefully reading my work in order to correct mistakes and give me feedback. Moreover, he is phenomenal in solving computer problems, with which I often was faced. I value his opinion and assistance very much, and I feel privileged to have such a caring friend. It would be inappropriate not to give thanks our two dogs Buster (bull mastiff crossbred) and Castanha (Irish setter) for keeping me in top form during the studies. Every morning at 5:00, they are eagerly waiting for me to get up. We then drive a bit outside town to our small but beautiful "mashamba", where we run 5 km. This small trip gives strong muscles, fresh air, positive energy and a clear mind. To be part of nature every morning also gives a delightful sense of being alive and in contact with the universe. Without the persistence of our two canine friends, I would not have been able to keep up the workload. Finally, it is important for me to acknowledge the inspiration I have received daily from the women of Chimoio, whom I have been living among and observed for 12 years now. Many of these women are living under almost unbearable circumstances due to the local patriarchal structure. However, in spite of their hardship, they still can find the energy to smile, to laugh and to extend a helping hand. These women are my heroes. They have the courage to go on with their daily life, hoping for a better future, in spite of the constant domination. iv Preface "You see but you do not observe." Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. (Jordaan et al 1995: 403) Beyond Ghor, there was a town. All its inhabitants were blind. One day a king arrived with his followers to a place close to this town. He had brought along his army, and set up camp in the desert. The king had a mighty big elephant, which was used in attacks and as a means to increase the awe of the people. The inhabitants were eager to experience the elephant, and some of the blind people were so curious that they ran out to find it. Since they did not know anything about the form of the elephant, they were fumbling around, trying to gather information by touching the elephant. After a while, everybody believed that each knew the truth, because each had touched a part of the elephant. When they came back to their town, people gathered eagerly around them. Everyone was curious to hear the truth from each. When they asked about the form of the elephant, they listened to everything that they were told. The man who had touched the ear of the elephant said, "It is a big, rugged thing, being flat and wide as a carpet.” The one who had felt the trunk said, "It is like a straight, hollow pipe, appalling and destructive". The one who had felt its feet and legs said, "It is huge and firm as a pole". Since each of them had only touched one part of the elephant, none of them knew the truth. Each had created an animal that did not exist. Instead, they had added their own well-known conceptual meaning- structure to what they found. In this way, they had come across part of the truth, but they had made that part equal to the whole truth. (Gamborg 1999: 7-8). Maybe we all are blind regarding reality, to a certain extend. Perhaps we will never completely be able to get over this lack of visibility, or maybe we are not developed to understand everything. Nevertheless, we should still examine all the parts of the elephant and their interrelations, rather than creating one-sided realities that do not exist. This Sufi-story shows that if the men had listened to each other and shared their experiences, rather than trusting only their own perception, they would have been able to combine their information and hence come closer to the truth. They would have found out that the elephant has more aspects than what each had experienced. None of us is able to perceive the whole truth at any one time.