Florida State University Libraries Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations The Graduate School 2005 "And They'll March with Their Brothers to Freedom": Cumann na Mban, Nationalism, and Women's Rights in Ireland, 1900-1923 Christi McCallum Follow this and additional works at the FSU Digital Library. For more information, please contact [email protected] THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES ‘AND THEY’LL MARCH WITH THEIR BROTHERS TO FREEDOM’: CUMANN NA MBAN, NATIONALISM, AND WOMEN’S RIGHTS IN IRELAND, 1900—1923 By CHRISTI MCCALLUM A Thesis submitted to the Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2005 Copyright © 2005 Christi McCallum All Rights Reserved The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Christi McCallum defended on April 13, 2005. Charles Upchurch Professor Directing Thesis Suzanne Sinke Committee Member Jonathan Grant Committee Member The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my gratitude to the International PEO, most especially the Malvern branch, for their support and financial assistance. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract...............................................................................................................................v INTRODUCTION: IRISH WOMEN AND NATIONALISM...........................................1 CONFLICTING INTERESTS? THE SUFFRAGIST-NATIONALIST DEBATE, 1908—1916.......................................................................................................................18 THE IRISH VOLUNTEERS AND CUMANN NA MBAN, 1913—1916.......................37 CUMANN NA MBAN AND THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE....................................57 CONCLUSION: CUMANN NA MBAN IN THE CIVIL WAR AND FREE STATE...78 BIBLIOGRAPHY.............................................................................................................98 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH...........................................................................................114 iv ABSTRACT This Thesis examines the concurrence of nationalism with feminism in Ireland during the revolutionary period, 1900—1923. Many authors wish to draw a strict dichotomy between women who became suffragists and women who became nationalists, but it will be shown that such lines became blurred during this period as more suffragists joined the nationalists and more nationalists gained interest in the suffrage movement. I will also seek to show that women’s involvement in the nationalist struggle was necessary for their inclusion in politics during the first quarter of the Twentieth century, as suffragists alone would never have made an imprint upon the rapidly militarizing society in Ireland during this time. Cumann na mBan and Inghinidhe na hÉireann will be the primary focuses of this work because they used their respective places within the nationalist movement to blur gender roles and to argue for women’s rights. Some historians praise the suffragists while painting nationalist women as puppets of the male nationalist organizations; however, women in the nationalist movement were able to make more of an impact on the men than suffragists due to their relationship with male revolutionaries. While many historians have noted that Cumann na mBan was started because the Irish Volunteers did not want to include women in their council, few have noted how the women of Cumann used their unique position to increase the visibility of Irish women in the struggle for independence and created a formidable public persona that set them apart as women and revolutionaries. Cumann na mBan and Inghinidhe na hÉireann both used their voices to demand women’s inclusion in politics and public life. Their constant references to the women of ancient Ireland often stated that if they wanted to remain true to their ancient Irish roots, they must include women as equal citizens and give them equal rights. However, it was only when women in Cumann na mBan took part in the risings and military activities that most of the nationalist men began to see them on more equal terms. With women taking the same risks as the men, logic dictated that keeping women out of politics was hypocritical. In fact, Constance Markievicz became the first woman to be elected to Parliament because of her role in Cumann na mBan and her nationalist activities. The greatest achievement of women’s activism in Ireland was their place in the 1922 Constitution, which included women on equal terms. However, women’s autonomy and equality met with staunch criticism from the church. Catholic anti-feminism was at its height following the Civil War in 1923. Many nationalist men who had praised the women of Cumann na mBan in previous years blamed them for the Civil War. The fact that women had sided almost unanimously with the anti-treaty forces damaged their political reputation in the Free State. As had happened in Post-WWII America, men began seeing women’s activism as dangerous and unnatural; they now attempted to reposition women within the home. While during the revolutionary period, the women had come to demand their equality and had made great steps towards achieving it; the anti-feminist backlash of the 1920s and 30s would result in laws that limited women’s activities outside the home. Though women kept the right to vote and to hold office, the 1937 Constitution made it illegal for married women to work outside the home and by emphasizing women’s roles as wives and mothers, undermined women’s equality. v INTRODUCTION IRISH WOMEN AND NATIONALISM 1 The Training of Irish women for the duties of their state in life is, if a less showy matter than high politics, at least as important as they. From a combination of circumstances, Irish girls have received far less training in the domestic arts than the women of most civilized countries...The need for our nation...is not for the Amazon. It is for the conservative woman, careful for all the sanctities, all the securities, all the safeguards of the House of Life.1 Profound changes occurred in Ireland during the period 1900—1923; universal suffrage was achieved, wars were fought, and the Irish Free State was established. These dates indicate the start and end of an age of nationalism and revolution; women founded their first organization of the revolutionary era in 1900 and by 1923 they had impacted the gender ideologies of the Irish state and advanced women’s position within the government. Women played an integral role in the military campaigns of Ireland during these years, in return, they demanded suffrage on equal terms and their sex’s inclusion in politics, both of these demands were granted in the Constitution of 1922. Katharine Tynan penned the above quote in 1924; like other conservatives from her time, she feared that women were too interested in politics and did not spend enough time tending to their “natural” domain, the home. By contrast, papers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had been calling for women to leave the home. Women’s nationalist newspapers at this time stated their desire that women should have “A voice in directing the affairs of Ireland.”2 So how did women in Ireland move, in the matter of just over two decades, from lacking a voice in the nation to being so highly involved in politics that they neglected the home? The answer requires an analysis of Irish women’s activities during the first twenty-three years of the century. The most prevalent campaigns by women in early twentieth century Ireland were: the suffrage movement, nationalist women’s movements (militant and non-militant), and unionist women’s movements (militant and non-militant). The nationalist movement had, during the late nineteenth century, come to dominate life in Ireland. There were many phases to the national movement, but the early twentieth century saw two distinct phases: first, the cultural/political portion of the movement, secondly the military component of the movement, which followed the Home Rule Crisis. Women were a party to both of these phases through cultural groups like the Gaelic League and Sinn Fein, through political groups such as Inghinidhe na hEireann, and through the military group Cumann na mBan. This study will focus on Cumann na mBan and Inghinidhe na hEireann, thus bringing military and political aspects of Irishwomen’s lives in the early twentieth century to the fore. The relationship between feminism and nationalism is the major focus of this work. Feminist historians have often shown their disapproval and disappointment with women in these two groups, who were both so very involved in nationalism that they could not become “real” feminists. Jan Canavan, while focusing on 1 Katharine Tynan, “A Trumpet Call to Irish Women,” in William George Fitzgerald, ed., The Voice of Ireland: a survey of the race and nation from all angles, (Dublin : Virtue and Co., 1924), 170, 174. 2 C. L. Innes, “ ‘A Voice in Directing the Affairs of Ireland’: L’Irlande libre, The Shan Van Vocht, and Bean na hEireann,” in Paul Hyland and Neil Sammells, eds., Irish Writing: Exile and Subversion, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991), 146—158, 146. 2 women and nationalism in 1840s Ireland has noted, “Feminists who privilege sexual difference often fail to understand women’s interest in nationalist or socialist causes, because they understand women’s interests to be entirely gender-related. This can lead to sweeping generalizations about