Writing, Literacy, and Textual Transmission: The Production of Literary Documents in Iron Age Judah and the Composition of the Hebrew Bible by Jessica N. Whisenant A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Near Eastern Studies) in the University of Michigan 2008 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor Brian B. Schmidt, Chair Professor Gary M. Beckman Professor Piotr A. Michalowski Professor David S. Potter © Jessica N. Whisenant 2008 2 To my husband, Rob; my daughter, Bronwyn; and my grandmother, Ruby ii Acknowledgements The research and writing for this dissertation have been done in a variety of locations across the United States and in England, and at a variety of institutions, including the University of Michigan, Wright State University (Ohio), Dallas Theological Seminary (Texas), the University of Oregon, and Oxford University (England). The Near Eastern Studies Department at the University of Michigan deserves my sincere thanks for selecting me for a One-Term Dissertation Fellowship, which has helped support me in the final few months of my dissertation work. A number of scholars at the University of Michigan have seen various parts of this manuscript and have offered suggestions and encouragement. I particularly wish to thank Brian Schmidt, who has patiently guided me through the dissertation process, read innumerable drafts of my chapters, and helped me refine my ideas. Special thanks go to Gary Beckman, who has unflaggingly supported my efforts to research and write this dissertation, and who has read through and advised me on significant portions of it. For offering me the benefit of his expertise on ancient Egyptian writing and literacy, my thanks go to Terry Wilfong. Finally, I also wish to thank Piotr Michalowski and David Potter. None of these scholars, however, should be held responsible for the views expressed in this dissertation or any errors that may still remain in it. A heartfelt word of gratitude must go to my husband, Rob, who has encouraged me in this project over the last five years, and who has devoted his time and energy in ensuring that I could finish it. My thanks are due as well to members of my family who have encouraged and supported me in this endeavor, including my parents, Marlon and Kathleen, my sister, Bronwyn, and my brother, Patrick. iii Table of Contents Dedication ......................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... iii Chapter 1. Literacy, Tradition, and the Pre-Modern State: Shifts in the Terms of Debate and the Resultant Implications for the Study of Writing and Literacy in Iron Age Judah..........................................................................................................................1 Shifts in the Discourse on Literacy...........................................................................3 Shifts in the Discourse on Transmitted Tradition......................................................6 Shifts in the Discourse on the Nature of the Pre-Modern State .................................7 Plan of the Project .................................................................................................10 Bibliography..........................................................................................................13 2. Literacy and Writing in Ancient Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia.................16 Introduction...........................................................................................................16 Writing and Literacy in Ancient Greece .................................................................19 Summary of the Consensus Regarding Literacy in Ancient Greece.........................45 Writing and Literacy in Ancient Egypt ...................................................................47 Literacy and Writing in Ancient Mesopotamia and Along Its Western Periphery....67 (1) Writing, Scribes, and the Emergence and Development of the State in Mesopotamia .....................................................................................................68 (2) The Context(s) of Mesopotamian Writing Activity.........................................72 (3) The Uses of Writing in Mesopotamia ............................................................73 (4) The Collection and Storage of Documents in Archives ..................................79 (5) The Role of the Scribes in Mesopotamian Society and Culture......................82 (6) Mesopotamian Literacy and the Scribal Institutions of the West....................92 Conclusion.............................................................................................................98 Bibliography........................................................................................................102 3. Literacy and Writing in Late Bronze and Early Iron Age Canaan (ca.1400 – 925 BCE) ................................................................................................................119 Introduction.........................................................................................................119 Socio-political circumstances of Canaan during the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages.....................................................................................................................122 Cuneiform Writing Technology ............................................................................136 Alphabetic Cuneiform Writing Technology...........................................................143 Linear Alphabetic Writing Technology.................................................................146 The Iron I Trading Centers of the Lebanese Coast and the Emergent Writing Tradition of the Southern Levant..........................................................................155 Writing and Literacy in Inland Canaan during the Tenth Century BCE................161 Conclusion...........................................................................................................165 Bibliography........................................................................................................168 iv 4. Literacy and Writing in Israel and the Transjordan during the Late Iron Age (ca. 925 – 550 BCE)................................................................................................182 Introduction.........................................................................................................182 State Formation in the Southern Levant during the Ninth – Early Sixth Centuries BCE.....................................................................................................................187 State Formation: Israel........................................................................................192 State Formation: Israel versus the Transjordan ...................................................203 State Formation: Ammon .....................................................................................205 State Formation: Moab........................................................................................209 State Formation: Edom........................................................................................213 State Formation in the Transjordan: The Tribal State Model ...............................219 The Impact of the Neo-Assyrian Empire on State Formation in the Southern Levant ............................................................................................................................222 Writing and Literacy in Israel and the Transjordan..............................................225 Writing and Literacy: Monumental Inscriptions...................................................228 Mesha Inscription (MI = KAI 181) ...................................................................233 Amman Citadel Inscription (CAI 59)................................................................235 Tel Miqne Inscription.......................................................................................237 Tel Siran Bottle Inscription (CAI 148)..............................................................237 Writing and Literacy: Administrative and Ownership Inscriptions .......................238 Writing and Literacy: Letters ...............................................................................241 Writing and Literacy: Cultic and Religious Inscriptions.......................................243 Conclusion...........................................................................................................250 Bibliography........................................................................................................254 5. Writing and Literacy in Iron II Judah (ca. 925-550 BCE)..............................270 Introduction.........................................................................................................270 The Social-Political Landscape of Judah during the Ninth—Early Sixth Centuries BCE.....................................................................................................................275 Literacy and the Uses of Writing in Iron II Period Judah .....................................289 Economic, Administrative, and Legal Inscriptions................................................291 Monumental Inscriptions .....................................................................................302