The Politics of Gendered Memory of Japanese “Comfort Women” Sachiyo Tsukamoto BA(Nagasaki); MA(Nottingham) A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics University of Newcastle September 2018 Abstract This thesis explores the role of gender in the nexus between memory construction and national identity formation in Japan, with a focus on the war memory of so-called “comfort women”, or the sex slaves for the Imperial Japanese Military. Despite the fact that Japanese women became the initial victims of the military system of sexual slavery, the majority of them have been excluded not only from scholarly research, but also from feminist transnational justice activism for victims. This research, therefore, analyses the silenced narratives of ten Japanese “comfort women” survivors who testified mainly in the 1950s and 1960s. This study innovates in political science through incorporating the popular memory approach based on the oral history method, combined with the radical feminist approach, Carole Pateman’s critical analysis of the patriarchal state as proposed by the theory of the sexual contract and the feminist activist approach, premised on the pursuit of social justice. For this puspose, this research focalises trauma and healing at the centre of our struggles for emancipation, as proposed by Sara C. Motta and Aurora Levins Morales. This innovative and interdisciplinary study foregrounds memory, history and trauma in the analysis of contemporary politics. Accordingly, gender and trauma are the two core concepts around which my analysis is woven. Trauma is political because it reveals gendered unequal relations between the perpetrators and the victims as a central axis in the (re)production in the modern state and nation. The Japanese survivors’ voices of trauma challenge the gendered hierarchy in remembering the war, which illustrates the hegemonic masculinity of the Imperial Japanese Military and state. The hegemonic masculinity of Japanese soldiers is integral to understanding what “comfort women” meant to them. The Japanese survivors challenge this patriarchal militarist state by exercising their political agency through the i creation of a counter-memory of victims of the military’s sexual slavery system. This thesis concludes that gender plays a pivotal role in the (re)construction of both war memory and national identity, because for a modern patriarchal state, the control of the former is central to the control of the latter. In this aim, the state control and manipulation of female and male sexuality for mobilisation of the nation is the key to state formation. By exploring the memories of the Japanese victims as well as war veterans, this thesis contributes to broader discussion about the complexities of masculinised citizenship, feminised subjectivities and (political) personhood in a modern democratic society. I strongly hope that this thesis will contribute to recognising all “comfort women”, regardless of nationalities, as the victims of sexual slavery, by revealing the fierce battle of the Japanese survivors with their trauma in order to transcend the patriarchal binary of so-called “good” women and “bad” women, and to re-humanise modern Japan. ii Statement of Originality I hereby certify that the work embodied in the thesis is my own work, conducted under normal supervision.The thesis contains no material which has been accepted, or is being examined, for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to the final version of my thesis being made available worldwide when deposited in the University’s Digital Repository, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 and any approved embargo. Sachiyo Tsukamoto iii Preface The name order of all Japanese and Korean persons follows their traditional pattern; that is, the surname precedes the given name. Translations from the original Japanese sources are my own, except where translators’ names are mentioned. I have added my English translation to the titles of Japanese works. iv Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge my huge debt to my supervisors, Dr Sara C. Motta (politics) and Professor Victoria Haskins (history). Without their academic support and pastoral care, this thesis would not be completed. As an interdisciplinary researcher, I went through considerable difficulties in filling the gap between politics and history. My supervisors always supported me in harmonious collaboration. I also owe a great debt of my gratitude to some organisations and people in Japan for their support of my research. I would like to thank Nishino Rumiko, Nakahara Michiko, Igeta Midori and other members of Violence Against Women in War Research Action Centre (VAWW-RAC) for sharing their resources and attending interviews with me. Likewise, I am deeply grateful for Amaha Michiko of Kanita Fujin no Mura and Ikeda Eriko and other staff of Women’s Active Museum on War and Peace (WAM), in particular, for allowing me to access the valuable primary source left by a Japanese “comfort woman” survivor, Shirota Suzuko (Pseudonym) . Without their strong support of my research, Chapter 6 would never have been achieved. I am also deeply appreciative of the late Hirota Kazuko, as well as Kawata Fumiko, for introducing a variety of precious stories about the Japanese “comfort women” survivors whom they interviewed. In particular, Hirota’s critical insights helped me to analyse a Japanese survivor, Kikumaru’s life story in Chapter 7. A war veteran, Matsumoto Masayoshi, and his daughter, Mimoto Keiko, also supported my research by being interviewed. My deepest thanks goes to them, as well as to Morikawa Shizuko, who not only participated in my interview but also helped me to contact Matsumoto. My appreciation also goes to Takemi Chieko for attending my interviews. v I am also grateful for the support I have received from other academics in the Faculty, including Associate Professor Suzanne Ryan and Professor Jim Jose. The previous and current postgraduate cohort has been a source of support and inspiration since I started my MA research on the issue of “comfort women” in Nottingham. Thanks goes to Dr Peter S. Crittenden, Dr Philip Roberts and Dr Chrysanthi Gallou-Minopetrou and her husband, Sarantos Minopetros, who shared his beautiful poem in my thesis. In Newcastle, my thanks goes to Dr Ybiskay Gonzalez Torres, Dr Eliezer Sanchez, Dr Prapatsorn Suetrong and Elicia Taylor. Additional thanks for help and support are due to Dr Ned Loader, who introduced the issue of “comfort women” to me, Dr Kimura Maki (University College London), Professor Yamashita Yeong-ae (Bunkyō University), Professor Philip Seaton (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies) and Dr Hirai Kazuko (Hitotsubashi University) for friendship and inspiration. And thanks to Lindi Bowen for providing me with care and support whenever I need help. My research at the university has been funded by the University of Newcastle International Postgraduate Research Scholarship (UNIPRS) and the University of Newcastle Postgraduate Scholarship (UNRP 50:50). I would like to thank the University of Newcastle for the financial assistance. vi This thesis is dedicated to Ross Hague, Hirota Kazuko and all victims of the sexual slavery system vii Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... i Statement of Originality ............................................................................................................... iii Preface ......................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... v Contents ..................................................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Japanese “comfort women” and the prewar state-licensed prostitution system .................. 3 1.2 Transnational feminist activism and its exclusion of Japanese survivors ........................... 5 1.3 The politics of war memory: Identity construction ........................................................... 10 1.4 The politics of trauma: Subjectivity formation ................................................................. 14 1.5 Research objectives and methodology .............................................................................. 15 1.6 Summary of chapters ........................................................................................................ 18 Chapter 2 Literature Review: The Concept of “Comfort Women” ............................................ 22 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 22 2.2 Historical revisionism: Positivist view of history ............................................................. 22 2.3 Popular memory theory ....................................................................................................