Making peace under the mango tree A study on the role of local institutions in conflicts over natural resources in Tana Delta, Kenya By Joris Cuppen s0613851 Master Thesis Human Geography Globalisation, Migration and Development Supervisor: Marcel Rutten October 2013 Radboud University Nijmegen ii Abstract In this research, conflicts over natural resources in the Tana Delta and the role of local institutions are central, with a special emphasis on the 2012/2013 clashes. In this region, conflicts between the two dominant ethnic groups, the Orma (who are predominantly herders) and the Pokomo (predominantly farmers), are common. Three types of institutions are involved with conflict management and natural resource management, namely the local administration, village elders, and peace committees. As for other regions in Kenya, the authority of elders has diminished in the past decades, whereas the local administration lacks the authority and capacity to govern the region. Therefore, peace committees can play a vital role in conflict management and natural resource management. The main natural resources which are contested in the Tana delta, are water, pasture, and farmland. Although peace committees seem fairly effective with managing cross-communal conflicts and preventing any further escalation, conflict prevention needs further priority. Cross- communal agreements to manage natural resources have been less and less the case, which is one of the main factors causing conflicts. Engagement of communities in making these agreements should be one of the priorities in the post-clashes Tana delta. As for the 2012/2013 clashes, it is likely that outside interference, either prior or during the conflict, has caused the escalation of violence, which has led to the loss of almost 200 human lives, probably because of a favourable outcome of the elections held in March 2013. Although large-scale land acquisitions have not directly contributed to the clashes, interest of investors for developing ranches into large-scale plantations has increased intercommunal tensions, which has indirectly contributed to recent violence. iii Acknowledgements After months of delving into natural resource conflicts, interrupted by a six-month internship at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, I am happy to conclude this period with this thesis. Part of my research was carried out in the Tana Delta, Kenya, which would not have been possible without the funds provided by the NWO-funded CoCooN research project. I am grateful for being granted the opportunity to do research in the Tana Delta. Furthermore, the possibilities of discussing our results as researchers with both other scholars and development experts in the Netherlands and Kenya, was a valuable asset in forming this thesis and looking into the implications of my findings for the people on the ground. Special thanks go to my supervisor, Dr. Marcel Rutten, for guiding me in this process and who gave me the opportunity to be part of the CoCooN research project. Furthermore, also many thanks to Dr. Moses Mwangi and Dr. Martin Marani for their warm welcome and guiding us in our first weeks in Nairobi. I also want to thank Ulrich Pickmeier, for sharing his knowledge on the Tana Delta with me, and Katja Kirchner, Tjeerd de Vries and Stefan Jansen, for our numerous discussions in the Tana Delta and Nairobi on our research, Star Wars, and football. I am also very grateful to Zeinab Golo, Nasra Warsame and Bakero Abdalla, for helping me doing this research. In addition to your help, I was fascinated by discussing life in Tana delta in general and hearing all your stories. Furthermore, many thanks to all the people in the Tana delta who have participated in my research. I hope the future of Tana delta will be brighter for all of you. Finally, many thanks to my father, brothers, and friends who have supported me here in the Netherlands during the process of my writing and when I was in Kenya doing fieldwork. Last but not least, many thanks to my girlfriend Margriet, for her support and her patience. iv Table of Contents List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................ ix Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... x Glossary ................................................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................... 6 2.1: Concepts of conflict and conflict management ........................................................................... 6 2.1.1: Conflict .................................................................................................................................. 6 2.1.2: Conflict escalation and de-escalation.................................................................................... 6 2.2: Causes of conflict.......................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1: Another new war? ................................................................................................................. 8 2.2.2: Natural resource scarcity and conflicts ................................................................................. 9 2.2.3: Scarcity and cooperation ..................................................................................................... 11 2.2.4: Climate change and conflicts .............................................................................................. 11 2.2.5: Culture and ethnicity ........................................................................................................... 12 2.2.6: Security dimension .............................................................................................................. 13 2.3: The role of local institutions ....................................................................................................... 13 2.3.1: Statutory and customary law .............................................................................................. 13 2.3.2: Loss of influence .................................................................................................................. 14 2.3.3: Economic diversification and property rights ..................................................................... 14 2.4: Natural resource management .................................................................................................. 15 2.5: Local institutions and conflicts ................................................................................................... 16 2.5.1: Elders and alternatives ........................................................................................................ 16 2.5.2: The Wajir peace initiative .................................................................................................... 19 2.5.3: Declarations and resolutions ............................................................................................... 19 2.5.4: The mediated state ............................................................................................................. 20 2.6: Large scale land acquisitions ...................................................................................................... 21 2.6.1: ‘Land grab’ as a new phenomenon? ................................................................................... 21 2.6.2: Pros and cons ...................................................................................................................... 22 2.6.3: A messier picture ................................................................................................................. 22 Chapter 3: Kenya ................................................................................................................................... 24 3.1: Governance and security ............................................................................................................ 24 3.1.1: Governance ......................................................................................................................... 24 v 3.1.2: Security ................................................................................................................................ 24 3.1.3: Economy and development ................................................................................................ 26 3.2: Land governance ........................................................................................................................ 27 3.3: Political context .......................................................................................................................... 28 3.3.1: Post-election violence ......................................................................................................... 28 3.3.2: 2013 elections ....................................................................................................................