Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Dissertations Graduate College 4-1998 An Analysis of Fecal Coliform Bacteria as a Water Quality Indicator Janet Heyl Vail Western Michigan University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations Part of the Bacteriology Commons, and the Environmental Microbiology and Microbial Ecology Commons Recommended Citation Vail, Janet Heyl, "An Analysis of Fecal Coliform Bacteria as a Water Quality Indicator" (1998). Dissertations. 1594. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/dissertations/1594 This Dissertation-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. AN ANALYSIS OF FECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA AS A WATER QUALITY INDICATOR by Janet Heyl Vail A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Science Studies Western Michigan University Kalamazoo, Michigan April 1998 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. AN ANALYSIS OF FECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA AS A WATER QUALITY INDICATOR Janet Heyl Vail, Ph.D. Western Michigan University, 1998 The focus of this study is to assess the efficacy of fecal coliform bacteria as a microbiological water quality indicator. The scientific and educational context of fecal coliform bacteria is explored through analysis of large sets of water quality data, focused field monitoring projects, and review of commonly used resources for school-based and volunteer water-related studies. Analyzed data sets include long term sampling (10 years), multiple sites, daily samples, storm event samples, and other parameters monitored in parallel with bacteria. Special attention is given to data sets from Kent County, Michigan. A background reference site in Michigan unimpacted by humans was monitored for two years. Field comparisons of membrane filtration with other bacteriological methods for Escherichia coli were performed. Results of exploratory data analysis of long-term monitoring data established station profiles (box plots) for expected fluctuations in levels of bacteria. Typically, stations on the main reaches of Michigan rivers exceed fecal coliform bacterial levels of 200 colonies per 100 mL between 30 and 60% of the time. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Tributary stations vary from 30 to 80% exceedance, and drains are in a range of 70 to 97% exceedance. The "background" site had significant levels of fecal coliform bacteria, E. coli, and total coliforms throughout the year that were not associated with humans. The direct inoculation of a water sample onto a plastic film with gel (Petrifilm™) had satisfactory performance and could be effectively used as an alternative method to membrane filtration for student monitoring. Neither fecal coliform bacteria nor E. coli appears to meet all of the basic criteria for a credible water quality indicator, especially for Michigan. Additionally, misconceptions about indicator bacteria are commonly found in educational materials. Further analysis of the efficacy of federal and Michigan water quality standards for the protection of human health in recreational areas is needed. Collection of additional epidemiological evidence and consideration of site-specific standards that correlate with precipitation events should be part of this analysis. Extensive knowledge about the watershed is a key to interpretation of microbiological monitoring results as they relate to human health considerations. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. 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Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 9828815 UMI Microform 9828815 Copyright 1998, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Copyright by Janet Heyl Vail 1998 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation would not have been possible without the contribution of monitoring data from the City of Grand Rapids Wastewater Treatment Plant, Kent County Environmental Health Department, County of Santa Cruz Environmental Health Department, and Grand Valley State University Water Resources Institute. All of those who helped me access these data are gratefully acknowledged. My appreciation is also expressed for the assistance of my Dissertation Committee: Dr. Joseph Engemann (Chair), Dr. Robert Poel, and Dr. Elwood Ehrle. It has been a pleasure working with them. I would like to specifically thank Dr. Joseph Engemann for his thorough review of the dissertation and his helpful comments, especially in the figures and the discussion section. Also, much appreciation goes to Dr. Robert Poel for his encouragement and support. I would also like to thank my family and friends (especially John), and Dr. Ronald Ward for urging me to continue along the road to completion. This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of John Denver (1943-1997) whose songs and passion for the environment have given much inspiration. He sang the following at a benefit concert for the GVSU-WRI in 1991: "if there's an answer, it's just that it's just that way." Janet Heyl Vail ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................................. ii LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................ ix LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................... xi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 1 Background ................................................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................... 4 Research Strategy ......................................................................... 7 Significance of the Study ............................................................. 9 H. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.......................................... 11 Watershed Education .................................................................... 11 Perspective on Volunteer Monitoring ........................................ 14 Water Quality Indices .................................................................. 19 Microbiological Water Quality Indicators ................................. 22 Common Water Quality Indicators .................................. 23 Other Water Quality Indicators ........................................ 26 Detection of Fecal Coliform Bacteria ........................................ 28 Detection of Escherichia coli...................................................... 30 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents—Continued CHAPTER Epidemiology ............................................................................... 32 Numerical Water Quality Standards ........................................... 37 U.S. EPA Standards ......................................................... 40 Michigan Standards ........................................................... 43 Limitations of Water Quality Criteria .......................................