Artaxerxes II John Shannahan BAncHist (Hons) (Macquarie University) Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Department of Ancient History, Macquarie University. May, 2015. ii Contents List of Illustrations v Abstract ix Declaration xi Acknowledgements xiii Abbreviations and Conventions xv Introduction 1 CHAPTER 1 THE EARLY REIGN OF ARTAXERXES II The Birth of Artaxerxes to Cyrus’ Challenge 15 The Revolt of Cyrus 41 Observations on the Egyptians at Cunaxa 53 Royal Tactics at Cunaxa 61 The Repercussions of the Revolt 78 CHAPTER 2 399-390: COMBATING THE GREEKS Responses to Thibron, Dercylidas, and Agesilaus 87 The Role of Athens and the Persian Fleet 116 Evagoras the Opportunist and Carian Commanders 135 Artaxerxes’ First Invasion of Egypt: 392/1-390/89? 144 CHAPTER 3 389-380: THE KING’S PEACE AND CYPRUS The King’s Peace (387/6): Purpose and Influence 161 The Chronology of the 380s 172 CHAPTER 4 NUMISMATIC EXPRESSIONS OF SOLIDARITY Coinage in the Reign of Artaxerxes 197 The Baal/Figure in the Winged Disc Staters of Tiribazus 202 Catalogue 203 Date 212 Interpretation 214 Significance 223 Numismatic Iconography and Egyptian Independence 225 Four Comments on Achaemenid Motifs in 227 Philistian Coins iii The Figure in the Winged Disc in Samaria 232 The Pertinence of the Political Situation 241 CHAPTER 5 379-370: EGYPT Planning for the Second Invasion of Egypt 245 Pharnabazus’ Invasion of Egypt and Aftermath 259 CHAPTER 6 THE END OF THE REIGN Destabilisation in the West 267 The Nature of the Evidence 267 Summary of Current Analyses 268 Reconciliation 269 Court Intrigue and the End of Artaxerxes’ Reign 295 Conclusion: Artaxerxes the Diplomat 301 Bibliography 309 Dies 333 Issus 333 Mallus 335 Soli 337 Tarsus 338 Unknown 339 Figures 341 iv List of Illustrations MAP Map 1 Map of the Persian Empire xviii-xix Brosius, The Persians, 54-55 DIES Issus O1 Künker 174 (2010) 403 333 O2 Lanz 125 (2005) 426 333 O3 CNG 200 (2008) 63 333 O4 Künker 143 (2008) 233 333 R1 Babelon, Traité 2, pl. CVII.17 334 R2 Hess-Divo 325 (2013) 231 334 R3 CNG 200 (2008) 63 334 R4 SNG Levante-Cilicia 176 334 R5 BMC Cilicia p. 90, no. 3 334 R6 Peus 330 (1991) 155 334 R7 BM 1985,1114.3 334 Mallus O1 BM 1985,1114.2 335 O2 BM 1985,1114.1 335 O3 Hirsch 256 (2008) 320 335 O4 CNG Mail Bid 60 (2002) 866 335 R1 BM 1985,1114.2 336 R2 CNG Triton 7 (2004) 295 336 R3 Künker 216 (2012) 475 336 R4 Sotheby’s Nelson Bunker Hunt (1996) 566 336 R5 BM 1985,1114.1 336 R6 CNG Mail Bid 60 (2002) 866 336 Soli O1 BMC Cilicia p. 148, no. 26 337 R1 Hess-Divo 321 (2012) 181 337 R2 CNG 90 (2004) 5 337 R3 Baldwin's The New York Sale XXVII (2012) 594 337 Tarsus O1 CNG Mail Bid 66 (2004) 600 338 O2 BMC Cilicia p. 164, no. 12 338 R1 CNG Mail Bid 66 (2004) 600 338 R2 Baldwin's 34 (2003) 233 338 R3 BMC Cilicia p. 164, no. 12 338 Unknown O1 CNG 64 (2003) 169 339 O2 CH VIII.165, pl. XXIII.6 339 v R1 SNG Paris-Cilicia 417 339 R2 Elsen 111 (2011) 178 339 R3 Baldwin's 34 (2003) 384 339 R4 CH VIII.165, pl. XXIII.6 339 FIGURES Figure 1 Baal/Figure in the winged disc stater of Tiribazus 341 BM 1985,1114.1 Figure 2 Baal/Herakles stater 341 Peus 399 (2009) 184 Figure 3 Baal/Warrior head stater of Pharnabazus 342 BM 1979,0101.995 Figure 4 Baal/Lion attacking stag gold coin of Mazaeus 342 BM 1937,0606.18 Figure 5 Herakles/Zeus tetradrachm of Alexander 342 BM 1913,0518.2 Figure 6 Darius’ inscription at Behistun 343 WikiCommons Figure 7 The Darius Seal 343 BM 89132 || BM 1835,0630.1 Figure 8 Clay tablet with winged disc 343 University of Chicago, Oriental Institute, P 57464 Figure 9 Bes/Horned animal obol 344 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, no. 157 Figure 10 Baal/Lion and winged disc obol of Mazaeus 344 BM 2003,1107.3 Figure 11 Line drawing of King/Figure in the winged disc obol 344 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, no. 100 Figure 12 Assur as archer from relief of Ashurnasirpal II 345 BM 124551 || 1849,1222.12 Figure 13 Figure in the winged disc from Persepolis 345 Photograph: A/Prof. J. Alvarez-Mon Figure 14 Philistian Athena/City walls tetradrachm 346 Gitler and Tal, Coinage of Philistia, pl. LXIV, XV.1Ta Figure 15 Drawing of Achaemenid Immortal at Susa 346 Gitler and Tal, Coinage of Philistia, fig. 4.8 Figure 16 Sidonian City walls/King of Persia double shekel 347 ANS 1997.9.197 Figure 17 Philistian Oriental female head/City walls drachm 347 Gitler and Tal, Coinage of Philistia, pl. LXV, XV.2Da Figure 18 Obverse of Cilician Aphrodite/Satrap head stater 347 ANS 1944.100.54102 Figure 19 Reverse of Philistian Oriental head/Bes drachm 348 Gitler and Tal, Coinage of Philistia, pl. LXXVI, XVIII.5Db vi Figure 20 Reverse of Philistian Oriental head/Bes drachm 348 Gitler and Tal, Coinage of Philistia, pl. LXXVI, XVIII.7Da Figure 21 Drawing of seal impression 348 Kaptan, The Daskyleion Bullae, no. 3 Figure 22 Drawing of Achaemenid seal 348 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, 45 Figure 23 Drawing of Samarian obol 348 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, no. 7 Figure 24 Philistian Oriental head/Rider drachm 349 Gitler and Tal, Coinage of Philistia, pl. XCIV, XXV.2Da Figure 25 Drawing of Samarian King/Rider obol 349 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, no. 40 Figure 26 Drawing of Samarian lion/Persian king hemiobol 349 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, no. 101 Figure 27 King/Figure in the winged disc obol: Type 1 (b) 350 Ashmolean Museum, Robinson (1970), ex Bank Leu, ex Nablus Hoard Figure 28 Lion/Figure in the winged disc hemiobol: Type 1 (l) 350 Ashmolean Museum, Robinson (1970), ex Bank Leu, ex Nablus Hoard Figure 29 Drawing of Lion/Figure in the winged disc hemiobol: Type 1 (l) 351 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, no. 84 Figure 30 Figure in the winged disc/Rider obol: Type 2 (a) 351 CNG Mail Bid 82 (2009) 731 Figure 31 Drawing of Figure in the winged disc/Rider obol: Type 2 (a) 351 Meshorer and Qedar, Samarian Coinage, no. 124 Figure 32 Clothing plaque from Oxus Treasure 352 BM 123936 Figure 33 Achaemenid earring 352 MFAB 1971.256 vii viii Abstract This thesis codifies what is known of events under Artaxerxes II in order to expand our understanding of the man and his reign. A secondary purpose of the thesis is to assess the validity of the negative image of Artaxerxes II which has persisted in modern literature. In the author’s opinion, Artaxerxes II has been unfairly maligned. The thesis contends that the information available for Artaxerxes II’s reign has been underutilised in scholarship up to this point. Although the sources are fragmented and challenging, Artaxerxes II can be seen to have deftly manipulated the Greeks while furthering his own aims. Thus, this work presents a critical re-appraisal of the hostile Greek and Roman sources, combined with a new study of numismatic evidence. This involves re-evaluation of scholarship focused on the eastern Mediterranean during the fourth century, and the standard interpretations of interaction between the Greek world and the Achaemenid Empire under Artaxerxes II. The reassessment here works chronologically through his reign. This begins with an analysis of the information for Artaxerxes II’s early life and reign. The second chapter presents the evidence for the Persian response to the Spartan incursions of the 390s, including a thesis for a partnership with Athens to continue beyond the decade. It then presents a revised chronology of the 380s, and an account of the Egyptian campaign of the 370s and its diplomatic vanguard in the 375/4 King’s Peace rescript. The final chapter argues that the Satraps’ Revolt does not necessitate the rejection of evidence arbitrarily, as current interpretations do. The evidence can be read coherently. In the midst of these discussions, the thesis challenges the notion that Artaxerxes II was distant and afforded his satraps too much autonomy by highlighting the ways local administrators engaged with his imperial ideology through coin types. ix x Declaration I certify that this work has not been previously submitted for a degree, nor has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree to any other university or institution other than Macquarie University. I also certify that the thesis is an original piece of research and was written by me. Any help and assistance that I have received in my research and the preparation of the thesis have been appropriately acknowledged. All sources have been acknowledged. John Shannahan Student Number: 41213351 xi xii Acknowledgements I would first like to thank my principal supervisor, A/Prof. Paul McKechnie, not only for bearing the brunt of the workload, but for suggesting a thesis on Artaxerxes II in the first place. The process of studying Achaemenid Persia has been challenging, but an immensely rewarding experience. My associate supervisors, A/Prof. Javier Alvarez-Mon and A/Prof. Ken Sheedy also deserve a great deal of thanks. Javier only signed on as associate supervisor when he arrived at Macquarie in 2014, but in his brief tenure proved extremely valuable for his perspectives on art. I owe Ken a great deal of gratitude for his detailed commentary and numismatic expertise. While my supervisors suffered through a plethora of drafts and painful prose, that burden also spread to others at Macquarie, and I am very grateful for their expertise and criticism: Dr.