Copyright by Tanvi Madan 2012 The Dissertation Committee for Tanvi Madan Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: With an Eye to the East: The China Factor and The U.S.-India Relationship, 1949-1979 Committee: Francis J. Gavin, Supervisor William Inboden Mark A. Lawrence James B. Steinberg Jeremi Suri Catherine Weaver With an Eye to the East: The China Factor and The U.S.-India Relationship, 1949-1979 by Tanvi Madan, B.A., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2012 Dedication To Mummy, Papa and Nidhi Acknowledgements It takes a village to write a dissertation. I have benefited tremendously from having the support of a rather large village. When I first proposed tackling the subject of this dissertation, the reaction I often got was “this is too ambitious.” I am grateful to my committee for encouraging me to persist, while helping me find a way to make the project more manageable. Their feedback, guidance and perspectives have greatly enriched this project. Frank Gavin reminded me to not get caught in the weeds and to think about both content and conceptualisation. Mark Lawrence has been generous with his feedback and kept me honest as a historian. William Inboden and Jeremi Suri joined the commmittee at a later stage, but their advice and comments came at a crucial time and are reflected in the dissertation. Kate Weaver made me think outside my comfort zone and provided advice not just on substance, but on getting through the dissertation process. Special thanks to Jim Steinberg, who has served as my advisor, boss, professor and, most signficantly, mentor for almost the last decade. His enthusiasm for the project has been a key source of encouragement. Jim has made me think big and challenged me to be better. I would be remiss if I did not also acknowledge the contribution of two others who were present at the creation: Itty Abraham and Jim Lindsay. Jim asked me the tough questions that needed to be asked at the beginning and supported my subsequent research. Beyond the substantive advice Itty provided, he also gets credit for this being a work involving China, India and the US that does not have an animal mentioned in the title. In addition, this dissertation has benefited from comments from and conversations with a number of individuals. I wish to thank Rudra Chaudhuri, Stephen P. Cohen, Peter Garretson, Andrew Kennedy, Satu Limaye, Wm. Roger Louis, Anit Mukherjee, Jason Parker, Srinath Raghavan, Thomas Schwartz, and Strobe Talbott. v I am grateful for the vital insitutional support that I have received from a number of sources. The generosity of the Donald D. Harrington Fellows Program and the J. J. "Jake" Pickle Scholarship Program at the University of Texas, as well as the Lyndon B. Johnson Foundation was crucial. I am also in debt to various archivists at insitutions in Britain, India and the United States who facilated my research. Overall, this work has greatly benefited from the education I have received in the corridors, classrooms and communities of some outstanding institutions: The Brookings Institution, Lady Shri Ram College, Loreto Convent, The University of Texas at Austin and Yale University. I hope to repay the debt I owe them in the years ahead. The LBJ School at UT especially provided an intellectual and social community that made a very large campus seem like a cozy space. Thanks to Victoria Rodriguez and Peter Ward whose commitment to and support for the PhD program and the doctoral students at the school deserves gratitude and kudos. People tell you going into a PhD program that researching and writing a dissertation can be a lonely process. A number of friends and family members made sure that I was not alone on this journey. They have provided advice, friendship, support and hospitality, put up with my whinging and doubts, and made this endeavour enjoyable. Thanks to Rashmi and Deepak Appaya, Fred Beach, Madhuri Bhalla, Madhulika Bhattacharya, Amanda Cause, Parul Dua, Chester Finn, Jr., Matthew Hager, Anne Kramer, Cesar Martinez, Heather Messera, Shannon Nagy, Stephen Palmer, Jeff Patterson, Mahima Puri, Aaron Rak, Ariel Schwartz, Jeremy Shapiro, Sarah Steinbock- Pratt, Alex Stone, Poonam, Nalin, Radhika and Aditi Surie, Jennifer Taylor, Renu Virmani, Kripa Williams, and Wenjie Zhang. I owe special thanks to a few people. Emily Brownell, along with other members of the British Studies Drinking Club, made the last few years intellectually satisfying and a lot of fun. Eleanore Douglas provided feedback vi on drafts, patiently listened to my complaints, ideas and uncertainties, and helped see me through the final stretch of the dissertation. Brendan Lavy introduced me to Texas and has been friend and cheerleader. Angela Newell repeatedly helped me get all my ducks in a row and provided much moral support. Carolyne Davidson has been a partner in crime, friend, counselor, editor, fount of ideas, and, along with Ken and Isla Riggsbee, an indispensable part of my support structure over the last few years. And Brody Maxwell, who is a constant reminder of what is truly important in life. That would be the network of family and friends that I am fortunate to have and that I am indebted to. It would require more space than is available here to mention all those whose support has carried me through this process. I must, however, mention my grandfather, Prakash Chandra Suri, who, as a dedicated public servant and scholar, has been an inspiration. I only hope that if I ever reach his age, I am half as intellectually and physically active as he is. Finally, this dissertation would not have been possible without my parents, Nishi and Viren Madan, and my sister Nidhi. This work is a product of their love, support and generosity. It as is as much theirs as it is mine. I am grateful for their patience, willingness to read chapters and for letting me go, but never leaving me behind. It is to them that I dedicate this dissertation, with much love and gratitude. vii With an Eye to the East: The China Factor and The U.S.-India Relationship, 1949-1979 Tanvi Madan, PhD The University of Texas at Austin, 2012 Supervisor: Francis J. Gavin In recent years, as China has continued to rise as an economic, political and military power, there has been increasing interest in the U.S. in developing a strategic relationship with India in response. Most have seen this as a relatively recent framework for building U.S.-India relations after five decades of viewing the bilateral relationship either through a U.S.-India-Pakistan lens, or through a Cold War lens with India seen as a leader of the non-aligned movement and subsequently a de facto ally and security partner of the Soviet Union. A much-debated question among academics and policymakers has been whether India and the U.S. will ally or partner against China in the future. One set of answers asserts that a China threat-driven U.S.-India partnership is inevitable; a second contends that a China-driven U.S.-India alignment or partnership is highly unlikely, if not impossible. This dissertation shows that China has played an important role in shaping U.S.- India relations since the People’s Republic of China came into existence in 1949. It explores past US-Indian interactions vis-à-vis China between 1949-1979 and makes evident that a US-India partnership against China is neither inevitable nor impossible. India has partnered, one could argue even allied, with countries against China—with the US in 1962 and the USSR in 1971. On the other hand, at other times, even when Indian viii and US policymakers have considered China to be threat number one, the countries’ partnership has not been sustainable. The two countries have come together against China, but only when certain conditions are in place. This dissertation shows that they have partnered against China when they have agreed on (a) the nature of the threat, (b) the urgency of the threat, and (c) how to deal with the threat. In laying out this argument, this dissertation offers insights related to the future of the China-India-U.S. strategic triangle. More broadly, it also emphasizes that in considering when countries ally or partner, it is insufficient just to focus on threat itself or even perceptions of threat; it is also necessary to consider means: how states best think a threat can be met. ix Table of Contents Introduction..............................................................................................................1 The Story Thus Far .........................................................................................6 The Eastern Shadow: The China Factor and the US-India Relationship......13 The Organization of the Dissertation............................................................19 Chapter 1: The Orientation in the Orient (1949-1952) ..........................................23 China and India: The View from Washington (1947-1949).........................25 China and the US: The View from Delhi (1947-1949).................................32 Colliding Positions (1949-1952)...................................................................42 Red China or New China?: Comparing Notes (1949-1950)................42 To Recognize or Not to Recognize......................................................47 The Korean War: Seeing Each Other as Spoilers (1950) ....................54 Tibet: