ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY WAYS OF SEEING AND KNOWING CHILDREN: A CASE STUDY OF EARLY YEARS PRACTITIONERS’ UNDERSTANDINGS AND USES OF CHILD OBSERVATION DURING THEIR FIRST YEAR OF EMPLOYMENT PAULETTE A. LUFF Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Anglia Ruskin University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Submitted: July 2010 “Observation is a vital research tool but also – especially when embedded in reflective dialogue with others – an endless source of information and constant stimulus to discovering how people of all ages think and relate to each other.” (Fawcett, 2009:21) Acknowledgements: I would like to extend warm thanks and great gratitude to all who have supported me during my doctoral studies. I have very much appreciated the encouragement of my family, friends and colleagues (you all know who you are). Thank you to Professor Janet Moyles for giving me the opportunity to begin this process, as a PhD bursary student in CREATe, and to the Anglia Ruskin University sabbatical committee who provided me with the gift of time to complete the work. Special thanks to my extremely patient supervisors: Professor Theodora Papatheodorou, who has been an invaluable critical friend and valued professional mentor throughout the whole process; and Dr Gillian Robinson who has shared her extensive expertise and encouraged me over the final hurdles! Paulette Luff, July 2010 i ANGLIA RUSKIN UNIVERSITY ABSTRACT FACULTY OF EDUCATION DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WAYS OF SEEING AND KNOWING CHILDREN Observation of children, based upon careful watching and listening, is a key aspect of effective early childhood pedagogy, and yet research shows that early years practitioners struggle to observe children satisfactorily and find difficulty in planning provision based upon their observations. This finding is unexpected as there is a focus upon child observation in practitioners‘ initial training. This study set out to consider this anomaly through exploring new practitioners‘ understandings and uses of child observation during their first year of employment. The study took the form of a collective case study involving ten newly qualified early years practitioners. Taking an ethnographic approach, the project used participant observation in three early years settings, combined with semi-structured interviews with new practitioners and their mentors, to collect evidence of child observation in practice. Thematic content analysis of data, supported by the use of NVivo2 software, focused upon three aspects of the research question: firstly, new practitioners‘ understandings of the nature and purpose of child observation; secondly, why and how they use it; and, thirdly, observation as an aspect of their work within early years settings. Findings indicate that new early years practitioners demonstrate both informal practice, underpinned by an ethic of caring which guides observant, responsive work with young children; and formal practice, rooted in a developmental view of childhood leading to conscientious recording of predetermined, sequential, learning outcomes. The former is an intrinsic, connected response whilst the latter results from implementation of external policy requirements. Drawing inspiration from Dewey‘s pragmatist philosophy of education and from notions of wise practice, a new dynamic and relational approach to child observation is proposed, which may unite these dichotomous modes of thought and action and so enhance early years care and education. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS PART ONE: Introduction 1 Chapter One - Background to the study 1.1. Introduction to the research question 1 1.2. Theoretical perspectives 3 1.3. Intended contribution to knowledge 11 1.4. Context for the study 12 1.5. Outline of the thesis 20 1.6. Summary 23 PART TWO: Literature review 24 Chapter Two - Understandings of child observation 2.1. Introduction 25 2.2. A maturationist perspective 27 2.3. Constructivist developmental psychology 31 2.4. Behaviourism 34 2.5. Psycho-dynamic theory 38 2.6. Social constructivism 41 2.7. Postmodern perspectives 45 2.8. The contemporary debate and an alternative 51 2.9. Summary 54 Chapter Three – Uses of child observation 3.1. Introduction 55 3.2. Historical insights 56 3.3. Respectful uses of child observation 59 3.4. Observation for children‘s well-being 62 3.5. Identifying the progress of individuals 63 3.6. The basis for curriculum planning 68 3.7. Fostering communication and community 71 3.8. Dynamic, relational approaches 73 3.9. Summary 75 iii Chapter Four – Observation work in early years settings 4.1. Introduction 76 4.2. Characteristics of practitioners‘ work 77 4.3. Entering the workplace 79 4.4. Training of child care and education workers 81 4.5. Observation and training in social work 83 4.6. Obs. and continuing professional development 84 4.7. Child observations as teachers‘ work 86 4.8. The potential importance of observation 88 4.9. Summary 89 PART THREE: Methodology and methods 93 Chapter Five – Exploring and explaining the research process 5.1. Introduction 93 5.2. Theoretical rationale 94 5.3. Case study as a strategy 95 5.4. An ethnographic approach 98 5.5. The role of the researcher 99 5.6. Ethical considerations 101 5.7. The initial exploratory study 104 5.8. The collective case study 105 5.9. Participant observation 110 5.10. Semi-structured interviews 113 5.11. Data analysis 116 5.12. The trustworthiness of this study 117 5.13. Summary 121 PART FOUR: Data analysis and presentation of the findings 122 Chapter Six – Understandings of child observation 6.1. Introduction 124 6.2. The process of data analysis 126 6.3. A formal view 128 6.4. An informal view 139 6.5. Summary 147 iv Chapter Seven – Uses of child observation 7.1. Introduction 148 7.2. Formal uses of observation 152 7.3. Informal uses of observation 160 7.4. Summary 167 Chapter Eight – The first year of work 8.1. Introduction 170 8.2. The work places 171 8.3. The institutions – workplace variables 176 8.4. Personal qualities 179 8.5. Responsibility 183 8.6. Relationships 184 8.7. Summary of the findings 185 PART FIVE: Discussion of the findings 188 Chapter Nine - Considering understandings of observation 9.1. Introduction 189 9.2. Formal understandings 189 9.3. Informal understandings 196 9.4. Ways of seeing and knowing children 206 9.5. Summary 208 Chapter Ten – Considering uses of observation 10.1. Introduction 209 10.2. Formal uses 210 10.3. Informal uses 219 10.4. Ways of seeing, knowing and working with children 226 10.5. Summary 232 Chapter Eleven – Observation within the workplace 11.1. Introduction 233 11.2. Institutional factors 234 11.3. Individuals‘ personal qualities 236 11.4. Relationships and responsibilities 238 11.5. Contexts for developing relational approaches 239 v Chapter Eleven (cont.) 11.6. Seeing and knowing children 240 11.7. Summary 243 PART SIX: Conclusions 244 Chapter Twelve - Contributions to knowing 12.1. Answers to the research question 244 12.2. Conceptual conclusions 247 12.3. Practical implications 249 12.4. Evaluation of the study 251 12.5. Possibilities for further research 253 12.6. Contribution to knowing 254 DIAGRAMS 1.1. Illustration of a process of experiential learning 10 6.1. Representation of the approach to interrogating data 123 6.2. Summary of understandings – formal view 138 6.3.. Summary of understandings – informal view 147 7.1. Summary of uses – formal view 159 7.2. Summary of uses – informal view 167 7.3. Rel. between formal and informal uses and understandings 169 8.1. Holistic representation of findings 186 10.1. Formal understandings and uses of child observation 218 10.2. Informal understandings and uses of child observation 226 10.3. Relational understandings and uses of child observation 230 11.1. Ways of seeing and knowing children in context 241 11.2. Relational understandings and uses of observation 242 FIGURE 10.1. Example of Foundation Stage Records 217 vi TABLES 2.1. Summary of three objective theoretical approaches 37 2.2. Summary of three subjective theoretical approaches 50 5.1. List of main participants 107 5.2. List of research settings 110 5.3. Summary of data collected to inform the case study 119 6.1. List of themes with associated descriptions 127 6.2. Main ‘understandings’ categories and related themes 128 7.1. List of themes with descriptions and examples 150 7.2. Main ‘uses’ categories and related themes 152 7.3. Categories for analyses of understandings and uses 168 8.1. Workplace experience – main categories and themes 182 9.1. Practitioners’ understandings - objective theories 190 9.2. Practitioners’ understandings - subjective theories 198 REFERENCES 256 APPENDICES Appendix A Letter confirming ethics approval from UREC 310 Appendix B Focus group interview questions (initial study) 311 Appendix C Summary of responses to the focus group questions 312 Appendix D Students’ responses re the purposes of observation 313 Appendix E Interview questions 1 (beginning of study) 314 Appendix F Interview questions 2 (mid-point of study) 315 Appendix G Interview questions 3 (end of study) 316 Appendix H Students’ responses re the purposes of observation 317 Appendix I Summary of findings returned to participants 318 Appendix J Extract from an NVivo2 node report 321 vii Part One - Introduction Chapter One – Background to the research study ―Watching children as they learn and understanding their learning moments is complex and difficult work and places the highest of demands upon their educators‖ (Nutbrown and Carter, 2010: 120) The research study reported here focuses on the experiences of ten newly qualified employees in three different early childhood settings. It centres on one aspect of their professional work, observation of children, and explores how they understand and use this skill during their first year of employment. In this chapter I shall introduce this topic with an outline of the research issue and a rationale for the research, followed by an explanation of the context for the study, and a summary of the subsequent chapters of this thesis.