nutrients Review Polydextrose: Physiological Function, and Effects on Health Mariane Moreira Ramiro do Carmo 1, Julia Clara Leite Walker 1, Daiana Novello 2, Valeria Maria Caselato 3, Valdemiro Carlos Sgarbieri 4, Arthur C. Ouwehand 5, Nelson Adami Andreollo 6, Priscila Aiko Hiane 1 and Elisvânia Freitas dos Santos 1,* 1 Food Technology and Public Health Division, Center of Biological Sciences and Health, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande 79070-900, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil; [email protected] (M.M.R.d.C.); [email protected] (J.C.L.W.); [email protected] (P.A.H.) 2 Sector of Health Sciences, Department of Nutrition, State University of Centro-Oeste, Guarapuava 85040-080, Paraná, Brazil; [email protected] 3 Institute of Nutrition Josué de Castro, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; [email protected] 4 School Food Engineering, State University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, São Paulo, Brazil; [email protected] 5 Active Nutrition, DuPont Nutrition & Health, Kantvik 02460, Finland; [email protected] 6 School of Medical Sciences, State University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-887, São Paulo, Brazil; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +55-67-3345-7445 Received: 9 June 2016; Accepted: 12 August 2016; Published: 8 September 2016 Abstract: Polydextrose (PDX) is a non-digestible oligosaccharide used widely across most sectors of the food industry. It is a randomly linked glucose oligomer containing small amounts of sorbitol and citric acid. The random bonds in PDX prevent mammalian digestive enzymes from readily hydrolyzing the molecule and it has a reported energy value of 1 kcal/g. These properties have led to the acceptance in many countries that PDX provides similar physiological effects as other dietary fibers and has shown prebiotic potential. Dietary intervention with prebiotics has been shown to selectively stimulate the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of intestinal bacteria associated with several physiological benefits on health. Therefore, the objective of this review was a survey of the literature on the effect of supplementation with PDX in health, and to list the benefits for maintaining health and/or reducing the development of diseases. Keywords: polydextrose; prebiotics; health; functional foods; fiber 1. Introduction In recent years, scientists have become aware that the human microbiota, in general, and the gut microbiota, in particular, play a major role in health and diseases, such as obesity and diabetes, among others. A large amount of evidence has come to light regarding the beneficial effects, either for the host or the gut microbiota, of some foods and food ingredients or biochemical compounds. Probiotics and prebiotics designed to manipulate the gut microbiota for improving health outcomes are in demand as the importance of the gut microbiota in human health becomes increasingly established [1,2]. Probiotics are live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host [3]. Prebiotics, on the other hand, may be normal constituents of the diet or added to functional foods [4]. The concept of prebiotics was first introduced by Gibson and Roberfroid [5] as “non-digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity Nutrients 2016, 8, 553; doi:10.3390/nu8090553 www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients Nutrients 2016, 8, 553 2 of 13 of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon, and thus improves host health”. Prebiotics are sometimes referred to as non-digestible oligosaccharides (NDOs) and fiber [5,6]. However, it should be noted that not all dietary fibers are prebiotics as they may not be (selectively) fermented by members of the intestinal microbiota. Roberfroid et al. [7] updated these ideas as follows: “the selective stimulation of growth and/or activity(ies) of one or a limited number of microbial genus(era)/species in the microbiota that confer(s) health benefits to the host”. For a dietary compound to be classified as a prebiotic, at least three criteria need to be fulfilled: (1) the component must not be hydrolyzed or absorbed in the stomach or small intestine; (2) it must be a selective substrate for beneficial commensal bacteria in the colon, such as bifidobacteria; and (3) fermentation of the component should induce beneficial luminal/systemic effects within the host [8]. Responses to the fermentation of prebiotics are affected by individual variation in the microbiota as well as by the chemical structure of the specific carbohydrates [6]. Both gas production and prebiotic properties of the carbohydrates are likely to be influenced by the monosaccharide composition (commercially used prebiotics are primarily composed of glucose, fructose, galactose, or xylose), glycosidic linkages between the monosaccharide residues, and the degree of polymerization (DP) of the prebiotic. Several studies have suggested that more complex substances with longer chain lengths (DP > 10) and diverse linkages are fermented more slowly, with less gas production, and with potentially less bifidogenic capacity than short-chain carbohydrates (DP < 10) [9,10]. In vitro gas and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production data show that short-chain oligosaccharides are more rapidly fermented and produce more SCFA and gas than substrates with greater DP [9,10]. Inulin, that typically has a DP between 3 and 60, is an exception and has a prebiotic potential due to its high SCFA production and bifidogenicity, but also causes gas production [11–13]. Among the non-digestible food ingredients studied for their prebiotic potential, fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS; oligofructose), inulin, and galacto-oligosaccharides (GOS) are widely accepted as prebiotics, a fact supported by many human trials [7]. Studies suggest that also polydextrose (PDX) has prebiotic potential [14,15]. Therefore, the objective of this review was to survey the literature on the effect of dietary supplementation with PDX on health, and to list the benefits in preventing and/or reducing the risk of the development of diseases. 2. Polydextrose PDX is a highly branched, randomly bonded glucose polymer with an average DP of 12, ranging from 2 to 120. The molecule contains all possible combinations of α- and β-linked 1!2, 1!3, 1!4, and 1!6 glycosidic linkages, though the 1!6 (both α and β) predominates [16–18]. Due to its complex structure, PDX is not hydrolyzed by mammalian digestive enzymes in the small intestine, passing intact into the colon, in which it is gradually and partly fermented by the endogenous microbiota and the remainder, approximately 60%, is excreted in the feces [19–21]. Since PDX is not utilized by the host, energy is only provided by the SCFA produced from its partial fermentation by the microbiota. This results in an energy contribution of 1 kcal/g [20,22–24]. PDX is not sweet, has a neutral taste, and can be used as a low-calorie bulking agent in a wide range of foods, such as baked goods, confectionery, dairy products, and functional beverages as it is highly soluble in water and results in a non-viscous solution. PDX has been the subject of many studies, due to its versatility and multifunctionality. Besides being an excellent ingredient, it has been approved for use in foods in over 60 countries and is recognized as a dietary fiber in more than 20 countries [15,17,25,26]. It has been shown that daily intake of 4–12 g PDX improves physiologic functions without adverse effects [14]. 3. Effects on Mineral Absorption Iron is normally absorbed in the small intestine with the stomach playing an essential role in improving the biological availability of iron [27–29]. Also, calcium is normally absorbed in the small intestine [30]. However, when its absorption pathway is not sufficient to cover the body’s needs, Nutrients 2016, 8, 553 3 of 13 these minerals can also be absorbed from the colon. As will be discussed below (Section4), PDX has been documented to be slowly and gradually fermented, and the beneficial effects of PDX are mediated either through the metabolites produced and/or altered microbiota composition [31]. The production of SCFA will lead to a lowering of the luminal pH in the colon and make calcium more soluble. For iron, some chelation may happen with the SCFA, which may also facilitate passive absorption [31,32]. Legette et al. [33] demonstrated in a postmenopausal rodent model that the increased production of SCFAs after consumption of PDX increased mineral absorption in the colon. The animals received 5 g/100 g PDX for 4 weeks, and subsequently, a significant increase in the acute retention of calcium (102%) and magnesium (56%) was seen in animals fed diets supplemented with PDX when compared to the control group (Table1). Table 1. The effects of administration of polydextrose on mineral absorption. Host Dose Effects Reference Effects on mineral absorption - Increased in the acute retention of calcium (102%). Rats 5 g/100 g Legette et al. [33] - Increased the acute retention of magnesium (56%). - Increased in apparent calcium absorption (16%). Rats 5 g/100 g - Increased in bone mineral density (femur (7%), Albarracín et al. [34] tibia (9%) and spine (7%). Rats 4 g/100 g - Increased in bone absorption of calcium (262%). Weaver [35] Rats 5 g/100 g - Increased in bone absorption of calcium (22%). Santos et al. [30] Rats 5 g/100 g - Increased in bone absorption of calcium (16%). Hara et al. [36] - Increase in apparent iron absorption (74%). Rats 5 g/100 g - Increased serum iron concentration (52%), Santos et al. [27] hematocrit (34%) and hemoglobin (16%). Effects of administration of different doses of polydextrose (PDX) in different experimental models on mineral absorption. In another study conducted by Albarracín et al.