Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10479-2 — Vietnam's American War Pierre Asselin Excerpt More Information 1 Introduction: Why Vietnam Matters This book relates the story of the Vietnam War from the “other side.” Specii cally, it explains what Vietnamese communist leaders in Hanoi had to – and did – do to defeat the mighty United States, and its South Vietnamese and foreign allies, and reunify the country under their own authority. The Vietnam War, the narrative that follows demonstrates, was much more than the sum of its battles; an assortment of circum- stances shaped its course and decided its outcome. The ground war in South Vietnam and the air war in the North were certainly important in those respects, but they alone fail to explain why Hanoi prevailed and Washington lost in the end. After all, Vietnamese communist forces came up short in most battles, including two major offensives, against American and allied troops in the South, and suffered disproportionally higher casu- alties throughout the conl ict. Above the 17th parallel, North Vietnamese air defense units resisted valiantly, but American air forces still managed to bomb and destroy most targets at will. To make sense of the Vietnam War, to recognize and appreciate the reasons it turned out the way it did, we must look beyond the war itself. Above all, we must understand the personalities, motivations, thought process, and strategies of Vietnamese communist decision- makers. That is, we must see the conl ict – and the world – through their eyes. And it is that story this book relates. This is the story of how the Vietnamese David defeated the American Goliath. Vietnam as Global War Today, Vietnam is much more than a country. It is an evocation, a cause, a slogan. It is a dei ning chapter in the history of the United States, the label 1 © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10479-2 — Vietnam's American War Pierre Asselin Excerpt More Information 2 2 Vietnam’s American War: A History of a global era, an inspiration for the small, the weak, and the oppressed, a model of national liberation. It is, too, a syndrome that cannot be cured, a curse that cannot be exorcised. So much more than a geographical and political entity, it is a veritable incantation for some, a specter for others. Vietnam is a virtual brand name. Why is this all the case? Why do we keep evoking Vietnam? How did a small, impoverished country the size of a postage stamp on a large map of the world become the object of the second longest war in US history? And how did that war come to mean so much to Americans? After all, if Korea is the “forgotten war,” how did Vietnam, similar in so many ways, become the “war that never ends?” What accounts for the enduring preoccupation with it in US political, military, and academic circles? Why can we not discuss American foreign policy since then, including the recent campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan, without conjuring it, without framing the discussion within a “post- Vietnam” context? Why, after more than four decades, does Vietnam still matter? American military intervention in the small Southeast Asian country began in earnest in spring 1965. The ensuing Vietnam War, as we call it – the American War to today’s Vietnamese – lasted precisely eight years, until spring 1973; though its i nal outcome was not decided until two years later, in April 1975. It pitted puny North Vietnam, and its ostensi- bly ragtag Viet Cong supporters in the South, against the United States, the government of South Vietnam (which possessed the i fth largest army in the world at one point), and other allies, in a David-versus- Goliath- esque contest. As each side widely publicized the merits of its cause, and the wicked intentions of its enemies, to garner supporters near and far, their war turned into a global media sensation – the most potent symbol of the political realities of the times. The Vietnam War was the world’s i rst “television war,” regularly brought into people’s living rooms during nightly news broadcasts. Audiences in the United States, and around the world, closely followed its progression, as one would the storyline of a riveting melodrama or a daytime soap opera. People identii ed with it, were emboldened by it, and mobilized for it. The war produced more than its fair share of shocking and stupefying moments, immortalized in iconic footage and still images. Its brutalities, reported by ubiquitous correspondents and photographers on- site, eventually prompted gov- ernments and ordinary citizens everywhere to demand its end. The war elicited protests and counter- protests of tens, and sometimes hundreds, of thousands of people on six continents. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10479-2 — Vietnam's American War Pierre Asselin Excerpt More Information 3 Introduction: Why Vietnam Matters 3 The Vietnam War was the most consequential conl agration of the Cold War, a symbolic crucible for testing the staying power of the “Free [i.e., capitalist] World” against that of the “Progressive [i.e., communist] World.” It has been the most far- reaching armed conl ict since World War II, impacting the world in several profound and meaningful ways. It escalated Cold War tensions, which had been abating since the Cuban missile crisis of late 1962, and, just like that crisis, raised the specter of a superpower “hot” war. It marked the ascent of the People’s Republic of China as a major player in world politics, a role it has not relinquished since. Elsewhere in Asia, the war impelled closer, and for the most part enduring, US political, military, and economic ties with Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, South Korea, and Pakistan. It also bore directly on the formation of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967, and the adoption by the international community of the “One- China” policy that has chipped away at Taiwan’s sovereign sta- tus ever since. The war hastened decolonization by rousing independence move- ments across the Afro- Asian world. It also energized the Non- Aligned Movement of would- be neutral governments against superpower entan- glements and bloc politics, and fostered unity and collaboration among newly- independent Third World states at the United Nations and else- where. Che Guevara – the Argentine- born revolutionary who helped Fidel Castro seize power in Cuba before traveling to sub- Saharan Africa and returning to Latin America to foment popular upheavals – spoke of creating “two, three, many Vietnams” the world over. In demon- strating the possibilities of national liberation, predicated on a mili- tant Marxist– Leninist template, Vietnamese revolutionaries galvanized insurgent groups, from Mozambique and Angola to Nicaragua and El Salvador. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) drew both lessons and strength from the experiences of the Vietnamese; in fact, it came to see itself as closely intertwined with them in a common struggle against Western imperialism. The Lebanese Civil War, instigated by the PLO, broke out the year America’s enemies won the Vietnam War. The American war in Vietnam was a harbinger for other kinds of trans- national causes. In the West, it fueled a counter- cultural movement that electrii ed and radicalized young people, moving many to become polit- ical and social activists in an assortment of causes. A few of them went on to form far- left militant organizations, such as the Red Army Faction (the Baader- Meinhof Group) in West Germany, and the Red Brigade in Italy, responsible for spectacular acts of domestic terrorism. Left-wing © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-10479-2 — Vietnam's American War Pierre Asselin Excerpt More Information 4 4 Vietnam’s American War: A History political activism prompted massive general strikes and brought down a government in France, as it engendered lasting socio- political changes there and elsewhere. In Canada, it encouraged radical elements in the Quebec Liberation Front to press for that province’s secession by violent struggle. Meanwhile, in East Europe, the Vietnam War boosted solidar- ity and cooperation among members of the communist bloc, even as it aggravated the Sino– Soviet dispute over leadership of that bloc. The dis- pute eventually precipitated Sino- American rapprochement and Soviet- American d é tente, which effectively ended the Cold War between Beijing and Washington and, for a period, calmed that between Moscow and Washington. Ironically, the war that exacerbated superpower tensions at its onset impelled their diffusion at its end. The Vietnam War had equally dramatic consequences in the United States. No Cold War episode captured the domestic imagination to the extent, and for as long, as that conl ict did. It left few thinking adults indifferent. In fact, it galvanized them, occasioning an acute national identity crisis that tore at the fabric of American society by exposing and exacerbating old cleavages and creating new ones. Not since the Civil War had Americans been more divided. The Vietnam War incited mass demonstrations in the nation’s capital, violent riots across the country, deadly protests on university campuses – and even acts of domestic ter- rorism. Vietnam remains the only major American war whose outcome was conditioned more by the domestic and international response to it than realities on the i eld of battle. The conl ict bore directly on the decisions to lower the voting age from twenty-one to eighteen, to end conscription, “the draft,” and move to an all- volunteer military service. It exhorted Congress to reassert its role as balancer of executive power, to curtail the “imperial presidency” through the War Powers Act limiting unilateral presidential authority to deploy US troops overseas.