André Lapierre, Canada 24 Plenary Session / Conférence plénière A Mari usque ad Mare: Reflections on Canadian Toponymy Réflexions sur la toponymie du Canada André Lapierre University of Ottawa Abstract This paper, alternating in both official languages, will feature a synoptic view of the geographical nomenclature of Canada. Topics to be covered include a historical overview of the original Aboriginal stratum, the contribution of the various European languages involved in the establishment of geographical nomenclature, naming practices and strategies, as well as current issues in the management and conservation of Canada’s toponymic heritage. A quantitative appraisal of the distribution of official geographical names in provinces and territories and according to feature type will be provided, allowing for a measure of toponymic density and variation throughout the country. The contribution of provincial, territorial and federal name boards and of onomastic research groups in the development and dissemination of name research and scholarship in Canada will also be addressed. The paper will conclude with considerations on future challenges, ranging from the place of toponymy in the school curriculum to the addition of digital sound files in toponymic data bases. *** Résumé En alternance dans les deux langues officielles, cette communication présente un aperçu synoptique de la nomenclature géographique du Canada. Parmi les sujets abordés figurent un survol historique de la couche autochtone d’origine, la contribution des langues européennes à l’établissement de la nomenclature géographique, les pratiques et stratégies de dénomination ainsi que les questions courantes entourant la gestion et la conservation du patrimoine toponymique du Canada. Une évaluation quantitative de la distribution de la toponymie officielle dans les provinces et territoires et selon le type d’entité géographique sera présentée, ouvrant une perspective sur la densité toponymique et la variation à travers le pays. De même, la contribution des organismes provinciaux, territoriaux et fédéraux de gestion toponymique et des groupes de recherche onomastique au développement et à la dissémination de la recherche et de l’érudition sera étudiée. Seront examinées en conclusion quelques considérations sur les défis futurs, allant de la place de l’onomastique à l’école à l’addition de fichiers sonores dans les bases de données toponymiques. *** 1. Introduction There is so much to be said about geographical names in Canada that to attempt to summarize the toponymy of such a vast and diverse country in a single presentation is a daunting if not impossible task for any onomastician. So, rather than imitating the imprudent Icarus and lose my wings, I will more modestly try to illustrate some of the salient features of the place-name nomenclature of Canada, the country which is now proudly hosting the congress of the International Council of Onomastic Sciences for the second time. The occasion was in the city of André Lapierre, Canada 25 Québec in 1987 at Université Laval and now the Council is meeting in the most populated and ethnically diverse city of the country, Toronto, on the campus of York University. I will touch upon the origins and development of geographical naming, the main linguistic sources that feed geographical nomenclature, as well as the activities of name authorities and onomastic research groups. We shall examine some of the dimensions of place-name distribution as well as directions for further research and activities. Canada covers nearly 10 million square kilometers. The country’s motto, A mari usque ad mare: From sea to sea, underscores the vastness of the land. To appreciate these dimensions, consider that many of you have flown across the Atlantic from your homes in Europe to Toronto in just about the same time it would take to fly from St. John’s, Newfoundland to Victoria, British Columbia. In terms of land mass, Canada is the second largest country in the world after Russia. A country like Germany fits 28 times within its boundaries, Italy 33 times, and Austria 119 times. This magnitude has to be tempered however by an important consideration. If we look at France, for instance, we note that the country is 18 times smaller than Canada, but Canada’s population, at about 33 million, is less than half than that of the French Republic. The population of the state of California alone is greater that that of all of Canada! This considerable disproportion between population and land mass is one of the salient features of the country and is reflected in its toponymy where a concentration of populated place names in the southern portion of the country contrasts with a much larger number of geographical feature names in the north. A careful look at a map shows that the three major cities, Montréal, Toronto and Vancouver, are located less than an hour’s drive from the American border and that most inhabited feature names stretch like a fine strip, some 200 to 300 kilometers deep, along the southern border with the United States, leaving huge tracts of land further to the north where population, and hence name, density is much less extensive. Even in Canada’s most populous province, Ontario, 87% of the land mass is still Crown Land under the stewardship of the provincial Ministry of Natural Resources. This leads us to a second distinctive feature of the nomenclature, namely its relatively young age. When compared to other toponymic strata throughout the world, in Europe in particular, the roots of Canadian place names seem so recent you could almost see them, figuratively speaking. In one of the early overviews of Canadian toponymy, linguist Pierre Daviault touches upon this particular aspect: “Le chapitre des noms de lieux revêt au Canada un aspect qu’il n’a plus en France où la toponymie est fixée depuis si longtemps que, sauf les spécialistes et les curieux, personne n’en peut débrouiller l’origine ni la signification. Chez nous, la création onomastique en ce domaine, loin d’être chose du passé, est toujours vivante et en perpétuelle évolution” (1948: 46–47). Canada is still a young country; there are thousands of geographical features that have yet to be officially named and one can expect toponymic innovation to continue for many years to come. These distinctive features give credence to the popular saying that for what it lacks in history, Canada largely makes up in geography. 2. The first names on the land We know little if anything of the beginning on the naming process in Canada. The only certainty we have is that our First Nations and the Inuit, the original occupants of the land, gave names to geographical features, much in the same way this process seems to have taken place throughout the history of civilization. In fact, one could argue that geographical naming is a cultural and linguistic universal, so pervasive has this activity taken place around the world. To name is to appropriate, to take control of the landscape, to possess it, and inhabit it through language, the means by which geographical names come to life in a speech community, and eventually become part of identity and culture. André Lapierre, Canada 26 Early accounts of Aboriginal naming in Canada and elsewhere in America provide evidence that the major water and land features of the country were already named when the first explorers and missionaries arrived from Europe. Leif Ericson is believed to be the first European to have set foot on what is now Canadian soil at the beginning of the 11th century, as the remnants of a Norse settlement discovered on the island of Newfoundland in 1960 indicate. But we do not have any written documentation of encounters with the Aboriginal population which could provide clues as to the state of naming at that period in time. With the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the New World in 1492 however, more extensive expeditions across the Atlantic took place and soon, the great colonial powers of Europe began to document the state of Aboriginal toponymy. Jacques Cartier’s voyages in the early 1530s provide some of the first evidence of geographical naming in the Gulf of the St Lawrence River. Hochelaga, Saguenay, Stadaconé, and Canada, the name of our country, count among the very first documented names that appear in early 16th century maps and writings. But what do we actually know of this original stratum other than it existed before the arrival of the Europeans? Very little actually, and this is mainly because our knowledge of Aboriginal languages and history is still in the development stages, at best. To make matters more critical, most of these peoples and languages are endangered species, several reduced to a handful of speakers. Of the 52 known languages, only three, Inuktitut, Ojibwa and Cree, have a reasonable chance of survival in Canada. Studies of the linguistic features of aboriginal languages are still scarce, in spite of repeated efforts by the Canadian Linguistic Association to promote investigation into the phonological, morphological, syntactic and semantic features of these languages. What scholarship we do have is often limited to the lexicon in the form of bilingual dictionaries, many of them incomplete or outdated. The inherent complexity of some of these languages, combined with the absence of writing tradition in the Aboriginal communities over several generations, only adds to the challenge of unlocking the key to many of these languages. For toponymy scholars, this situation is particularly frustrating as the interpretation of Aboriginal names on early maps and writings relies on this type of information that is severely lacking. The original toponymic stratum then remains much of a mystery, both in its history and interpretation. In recent years however, interest in Aboriginal languages and toponymy has increased, raising the hope that our knowledge will improve at the same time.