CONTENTS Introduction ARCHITECTURE OF THE 1960'S: HOPES AND FEARS xxxi Part I HISTORY A PART OF LIFE. 1 INTRODUCTION 2 THE HISTORIAN'S RELATION TO HIS AGE 5 THE DEMAND FOR CONTINUITY 7 CONTEMPORARY HISTORY 8 THE IDENTITY OF METIl ODS n TRANSITORY AND CONSJ;'ITUENT FACTS 17 ARCHITECTURE AS AN ORGANISM 19 PROCEDURE 23 Part 11 OUR ARCHITECTURAL INHERITANCE 29 THE NEW SPACE CONCEPTION: PERSPECTIVE 30 PERSPECTIVE AND URBANISM 41 Prerequisites for the Growth of Cities . 41 The Star-Shaped City . 42 PERSPECTIVE AND THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF THE CITY 55 The Wall, the Square, and the Street . 56 Bramante and the Open Stairway 59 Michelangelo and the Modeling of Outer Space 64 What Is the Real Significance of the Area Capitolina? 70 LEONARDO DA VINCI AND THE DAWN OF REGIONAL PLANNING 72 SIXTUS V (1585-1590) AND THE PLANNING OF BAROQUE ROME 75 The Medieval and the Renaissance City 77 Sixtus V and His Pontificate 82 The Master Plan . 91 The Social Aspect 100 THE LATE BAROQUE 107 THE UNDULATING WALL AND THE FLEXIBLE GROUND PLAN no Francesco Borromini, 1599-1667 .. no Guarino Guarini, 1624-1683 . 121 South Germany: Vierzehnheiligen ..... 127 THE ORGANIZATION OF OUTER SPACE 133 The Residential Group and Nature 133 Single Squares . 141 Series of Interrelated Squares . 143 xi Part III THE EVOLUTION OF NEW POTENTIALITIES 163 Industrialization as a Fundamental Event 165 IRON 167 Early Iron Construction in England . 169 The Sunderland Bridge . 171 Early Iron Construction on the Continent 175 FROM THE IRON COLUMN TO THE STEEL FRAME 181 The Cast-Iron Column 184 TOW ARD THE STEEL FRAME 190 lames Bogardus 195 The St. Louis River Front 200 Early Skeleton Buildings 204 Elevators . 208 THE/ SCHISM BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY 211 Discufsions . 212 Ecole Poly technique: the Connection between Science and Life 213 The Demandfor a New Architecture 214 The Interrelations of Architecture and Engineering 215 HENRI LABROUSTE, ARCHITECT-CONSTRUCTOR, 1801-1875 218 NEW BUILDING PROBLEMS - NEW SOLUTIONS 229 Market Halls . 229 Department Stores . 234 THE GREAT EXHIBITIONS 243 The Great Exhibition, London, 1851 249 The Universal Exhibition, Paris, 1855 255 Paris Exhibition of 1867 260 Paris Exhibition of 1878 264 Paris Exhibition of 1889 268 Chicago, 1893 . 275 GUSTAVE EIFFEL AND HIS TOWER 277 Part IV THE DEMAND FOR MORALITY IN ARCHITECTURE 291 THE NINETIES: PRECURSORS OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE 292 Brussels the Center of Contemporary Art, 1880-1890 . 295 Victor Horta's Contribution . .. .. 299 Berlage's Stock Exchange and the Demandfor Morality 308 Otto Wagner and the Viennese School ...... 316 FERROCONCRETE AND ITS INFLUENCE UPON ARCHITECTURE 322 A. G. Perret 328 Tony Garnier . 332 xii Part V AMERICAN DEVELOPMENT . 335 Europe Observes American Production 336 The Structure of American Industry 344 THE BALLOON FRAME AND INDUSTRIALIZATION 347 The Balloon Frame and the Building-up of the West 350 The Invention of the Balloon Frame 351 George Washington Snow, 1797-1870 . ....... 352 The Balloon Frame and the Windsor Chair .... 354 PLANE SURFACES IN AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE 355 The Flexible and Informal Ground Plan 363 THE CHICAGO SCHOOL 368 The Apartment House 377 TOWARD PURE FORMS . 381 The Leiter Building, 1889 .1. 382 The Reliance Building, 1894 ~ 385 Sullivan: The Carson, Pirie, Scott Store, 1889-1906 388 The Influence of the Chicago World's Fair, 1893 393 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT . 396 Wright and the American Development 396 The Cruciform and the Elongated Plan 400 Plane Surfaces and Structure 405 The Urge toward the Organic . 414 Office Buildings 419 Influence of Frank Lloyd Wright 424 Frank Lloyd Wright's Late Period 427 Part VI SPACE-TIME IN ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND CONSTRUCTION . 429 THE NEW SPACE CONCEPTION: SPACE-TIME 430 Do We Need Artists? 430 THE RESEARCH INTO SPACE: CUBISM 434 The Ariistic Means . 437 THE RESEARCH INTO MOVEMENT: FUTURISM 443 PAINTING TODAY 448 CONSTRUCTION AND AESTHETICS: SLAB AND PLANE 450 The Bridges of Robert Maillart 450 Afterword 475 WALTER GROPIUS AND THE GERMAN DEVELOPMENT 477 Germany in the Nineteenth Century 477 Jr? alter Gropius 482 Germany after the First World War and the Bauhaus 485 The Bauhaus Buildings at Dessau, 1926 491 xiii Architectural Aims 497 WALTER GROPIUS IN AMERICA ..... 499 The Significance of the Post-1930 Emigration 499 Waiter Gropius and the American Scene 500 Architectural Activity 502 Gropius as Educator 510 Later Development .. 512 American Embassy in Athens, 1956-1961 514 LE CORBUSIER AND THE MEANS OF ARCHITECTONIC EXPRESSION 518 The Villa Savoie, 1928-1930 525 The League of Nations Competition, 1927: Contemporary Architecture Comes to the Front . 530 Large Constructions and Architectural Aims 538 Social Imagination ...... 542 The pnite d'Habitation, 1947-1952 544 Cha~digarh . ... ... .. 549 I . Later Work . .......... 553 The Carpenter Center for Visual Arts, Harvard University, 1963 556 Le Corbusier and His Clients ....... 563 The Priory of Ste. Marie de la Tourette, 1960 569 The Legacy of Le Corbusier . .. ..... 578 MIES VAN DER ROHE AND THE INTEGRITY OF FORM 587 The Elements of Mies van der Rohe's Architecture 588 Country Houses, 1923 . 590 The Weissenhof Housing Settlement, Stuttgart, 1927 594 The Illinois Institute of Technology, 1939-- 601 High-rise Apartments 603 Office Buildings 607 On the Integrity of Form 615 ALVAR AALTO: IRRATIONALITY AND STANDARDIZATION 618 Union between Life and Architecture . 618 The Complementarity of the Differentiated and the Primitive 619 Finnish Architecture before 1930 621 Aalto's First Buildings ... 625 Paimio: The Sanatorium, 1929-1933 629 The Undulating Wall .... 632 Sunila: Factory and Landscape, 1937-1939 640 Mairea, 1938- 1939 . 645 Organic Town Planning . 648 Civic and Cultural Centers 655 Furniture in Standard Units 661 Aalto as Architect .. .. 663 The Human Side . 665 J~RN UTZON AND THE THIRD GENERATION 668 Relations to the Past. .......... 668 J(Jrn Utzon . 672 The Horizontal Plane as a Constituent Element 673 xiv The Right of Expression: The Vaults of the Sydney Opera House 676 Empathy with the Situation: The Zurich Theater, 1964 688 Sympathy with the Anonymous Client 692 Imagination and Implementation 694 THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES FOR MODERN ARCHITECTURE (ClAM) AND THE FORMATION OF CONTEMPORARY ARCHITECTURE 696 Part VII CITY PLANNING IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 707 Early Nineteenth Century . 708 The Rue de Rivoli of Napoleon I . 714 THE DOMINANCE OF GREENERY: THE LONDON SQUARES 716 THE GARDEN SQUARES 9,F BLOOMSBURY 724 LARGE-SCALE HOUSING DEVELOPMENT: REGENT'S PARK 734 THE STREET BECOMES DbMINANT: THE TRANSFORMATION OF PARIS, 1853-1868 739 Paris in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century 740 The "Trois Reseaux" of Eugene Haussmann . 744 Squares, Boulevards, Gardens, and Plants . 754 The City as a Technical Problem 762 Haussmann's Use of Modern Methods of Finance 765 The Basic Unit of the Street 767 The Scale of the Street 770 Haussmann's Foresight: His Influence 773 Part VIII CITY PLANNING AS A HUMAN PROBLEM 777 The Late Nineteenth Century . 778 Ebenezer Howard and the Garden City 782 Patrick Geddes and Arturo Soria y Mata 785 Tony Garnier's Cite Industrielle, 1901-1904 787 AMSTERDAM AND THE REBIRTH OF TOWN PLANNING 793 H. P. Berlage's Plans for Amsterdam South . 796 The General Extension Plan of Amsterdam, 1934 804 Interrelations of Housing and Activities of Private Life 810 Part IX SPACE-TIME IN CITY PLANNING . 815 Contemporary Attitude toward Town Planning 816 DESTRUCTION OR TRANSFORMATION? 818 THE NEW SCALE IN CITY PLANNING 823 The American Parkway in the Thirties 823 High-rise Buildings in Open Space 833 xv Freedomfor the Pedestrian 842 The Civic Center: Rockefeller Center, 1931- 1939 845 CHANGING NOTIONS OF THE CITY 856 City and State 856 The City: No Longer an Enclosed Organism 857 Continuity and Change . 859 The Individual and Collective Spheres . 863 Signs of Change and of Constancy 868 Part X IN CONCLUSION 871 On the Limits of the Organic in Architecture 873 Politics and Architecture 875 ! Index , 884 I xvi ILL USTRA TIONS I. J~RN UTZON. Sydney Opera House, Australia, 1957. The sequence of great shells from the west xlii II. KUNIO MAEKAWA. Festival Hall, Tokyo, 1961. Photo. Shinkenchiku, Tokyo . xlvi Ill. LUCIO COSTA. Plaza of the Three Powers, Brasilia, 1957. From Modulo, Brazil, February 1958 xlviii IV. LUCIO COSTA. Plaza of the Three Powers, Brasilia, 1957- 60. Photo. Gau­ therot, from Ministerio das Relawes ExHiriores xlix V. LE CORBUSIER. Pilgrimage Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamps, 1955. Courtesy Dr. H. Girsberger . lii VI. KENZO TANGE. Annex to National Indoor Stadium, Tokyo, 1964. Photo. Tange . Hi VII. LE CORBUSIER. The Secretariat, Chandigarh, 1952-56. Photo. Thomas Larson ..... J. liii 1. MASACCIO. Fresco of the' ,Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, c. 1425, Photo. Alinari . , . .1 ' . ., , . 34 2. LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI. S. Andrea, Mantua, 1472-1514. Exterior. Photo, Alinari . , '.' . , . 35 3. BRAMANTE. Illusionistic choir in Santa Maria presso S. Satiro, Milan, 1479- 1514 36 4. CARLO MADERNO. Nave of St. Peter's, Rome, 1607-17. Etching, 1831. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Photo. Crown , 37 5. BRUNELLESCHI. Pazzi Chapel, Florence, begun in 1430. Photo. Giedion 40 6. FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO. Wedge-shaped bastions from his "Trattatto di Architettura." From the Codex Magliabecchianus, Florence . 43 7. VITTORE CARPACCIO. St. George and the Dragon, between 1502 and 1507. Photo. Alinari 44 8. Bagnocavallo, a medieval town of Roman origin. Air photograph, Military Institute, Rome . 46 9. FILARETE. The site of the star-shaped city "Sforzinda" about 1460-64. Codex Magliabecchianus, Florence . 46 10. FILARETE. Plan of the star-shaped city "Sforzinda." Codex Magliabecchia­ nus, Florence 47 11. FILARETE. "Sforzinda," the star-shaped city with its radial road pattern. After v. Oettingen 47 12. Vigevano: Piazza del Duomo, 1493-95 49 13. Vigevano: Main Entrance to the Piazza del Duomo. Photo. Giedion 49 14. FRANCESCO DI GIORGIO. Polygonal city crossed by a river.