POTENTIAL SITES PREDICTION FOR SALT-MAKING PRIOR TO THE 19TH CENTURY USING SPATIAL MODELING: A CASE STUDY IN NAKHON RATCHASIMA PROVINCE Montri Thanaphattarapornchai A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Geoinformatics Suranaree University of Technology Academic Year 2018 การพยากรณ์แหล่งศักยภาพส าหรับการผลิตเกลือสินเธาว์ ก่อนคริสต์ศตวรรษ ที่ 19 ด้วยแบบจ าลองเชิงพื้นที่: กรณีศึกษาในจังหวัดนครราชสีมา นายมนตรี ธนภัทรพรชัย วิทยานิพนธ์นี้เป็นส่วนหนึ่งของการศึกษาตามหลกั สูตรปริญญาวิทยาศาสตรมหาบัณฑิต สาขาวิชาภูมิสารสนเทศ มหาวิทยาลัยเทคโนโลยีสุรนารี ปีการศึกษา 2561 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project would not have been possible without the support of many people. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my thesis advisor, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sunya Sarapirome for the continuous support of my study, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time of the study, research and writing of this thesis. Besides my advisor, I would like to appreciate my gratitude to the committee members, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Songkot Dasananda, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Suwit Ongsomwang and Asst. Prof. Dr. Pantip Piyatadsananon for their encouragement and insightful comments. I would also like to thank Dr. Siripon Kamontum for valuable suggestions. I extend my thanks to all the staffs and students of the School of Geoinformatics for their help and support during my study here, especially Mrs. Ratchaneekorn Somakul, Miss Silirak Tanang, Miss. Waruuee Aunphoklang, Mr. Athiwat Phinyoyang, Mr. Khompheak Mom, and Mrs. Pimprapai Piphatnawakul. Finally, I wish to thank my family for their understanding and encouragement throughout my study. Montri Thanaphattarapornchai CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT IN THAI .................................................................................................... I ABSTRACT IN ENGLISH .......................................................................................... II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... IV CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. V LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... VIII LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... IX LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... XI CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background and significance of the study .................................................. 1 1.2 Research objectives ..................................................................................... 4 1.3 Scope and limitations .................................................................................. 4 1.4 Study area .................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Benefit of the study ..................................................................................... 6 II LITERATURE REVIEWS ................................................................................ 7 2.1 Archaeology of salt production ................................................................... 7 2.2 Ethnoarchaeological studies of salt-making ............................................. 12 2.2.1 Traditional salt- making methods .................................................. 12 2.2.2 Local history of the salt trade......................................................... 16 VI CONTENTS (Continued) Page 2.2.3 Landscape and environment of the salt-making sites .................... 17 2.2.4 Inner structure of salt-making mound site ..................................... 20 2.2.5 Distribution of salt mounds in the region ...................................... 21 2.3 Defining archaeological site boundaries ......................................................... 22 2.4 Surface expression of salt structure, salt-affected soil, and salt-making sites .................................................................................................................. 24 2.5 Remote sensing techniques for soil salinity and archaeological studies ......... 28 2.5.1 Remote sensing applications for salt-affected soil detection ........ 28 2.5.2 Remote sensing applications for archaeological study ................. 32 2.6 Spatial modeling .............................................................................................. 33 2.6.1 Concepts and theories ................................................................... 33 2.6.2 Previous studies on saline soil classification using spatial modeling ........................................................................................ 36 2.6.3 Archaeological predictive modeling application........................... 38 III MATERIALS AND METHODS ..................................................................... 40 3.1 Data collection and preparation ................................................................ 42 3.1.1 Related Factor Selection and their data preparation ..................... 43 3.1.2 Tools .............................................................................................. 52 3.1.3 Population / Samplings ................................................................. 53 3.2 Using spatial modeling for ancient salt-making potential area analysis ...................................................................................................... 54 VII CONTENTS (Continued) Page 3.2.1 Frequency ratio (FR) method ....................................................... 54 3.2.2 Logistic regression (LR) method .................................................. 55 3.3 Validation and comparison of the model results ....................................... 59 IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS..................................................................... 60 4.1 Factor data for modeling ........................................................................... 60 4.2 Probability map of ancient salt-making sites from FR .................... 63 4.3 Probability map of ancient salt-making sites from LR ............................. 72 4.4 Validation and comparison of model result .............................................. 78 V CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................... 85 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 88 APPENDICES APPENDIX A DATA TRANSFORMATION .......................................... 101 APPENDIX B SPATIAL AUTOCORRELATION (GLOBAL MORAN'S I) REPORT ................................... 138 CURRICULUM VITAE ............................................................................................ 146 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3.1 Details of the data used in this study. ................................................................ 44 4.1 Frequency ratio of salt-making sites occurrence. .............................................. 64 4.2 Salt-making probability classes, SMSPI, and coverage area percentage using the FR model. ........................................................................................... 71 4.3 The skewness of data based on the method used for data transformation of each variable.................................................................................................. 73 4.4 A set of coefficients expressing the relationship between the dependent and independent variables, including the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). ............. 74 4.5 Salt-making probability classes and coverage area percentage using the LR model. ................................................................................................................ 78 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Map of the study area and vicinity. ................................................................... 6 2.1 Comparison of ancient salt production and modern salt production in Nakhon Ratchasima Province. .......................................................................... 9 2.2 Distribution of sites. ........................................................................................ 11 2.3 General principles of salt production .............................................................. 13 2.4 Traditional salt-making area has four elements of microtopography ............. 15 2.5 Schematic drawing of salt-affected landscape elements at Ban Khok Sung near Bung Kaen Nam Ton, Muang Khon Kaen District ................................. 18 2.6 Arrangement of salt mounds and ditch at Ban Khok Sung near Khon Kaen . 20 2.7 Exposed profile of a salt mound at Ban Nong Suang, Kham Sakaesaeng District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province. .......................................................... 21 2.8 Interpretive curvilinear features and solution depression by using Radar images interpretation. ...................................................................................... 27 3.1 Conceptual flowchart of data processes for mapping the salt-making site probability. ...................................................................................................... 41 3.2 Example of salt-making sites from the visual interpretation and field survey at Ban Bing, Non Sung District, Nakhon Ratchasima Province