Who Must Die: The State of Exception in Rwanda’s Genocide by Kyrsten Sinema A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved April 2012 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: John Johnson, Chair Alan Gomez Helen Quan Roxanne Doty ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2012 UMI Number: 3505687 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent on the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI 3505687 Copyright 2012 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 ABSTRACT The state of exception in Rwanda did not spontaneously occur in Rwanda, it was initially developed by German and Belgian colonizers, adopted by two successive Hutu regimes, and nurtured and fed for 35 years of Rwandan independence until its final realization in the 1994 genocide. Political theory regarding the development of the "space devoid of law" and necropolitics provide a framework with which to analyze the long pattern of state action that created a milieu in which genocide was an acceptable choice of action for a sovereign at risk of losing power. The study of little-known political theories such as Agamben's and Mbembe's is useful because it provides a lens through which we can analyze current state action throughout the world. As is true in many genocidal regimes, the Rwandan genocide did not just occur as a "descent into hell." Rather, state action over the course of decades in which the subjects of the state (People) were systematically converted into mere flesh beings (people), devoid of political or social value, creates the setting in which it is feasible to seek to eliminate those beings. A question to be posed to political actors and observers around the world today is at what point in the process of one nation's creation of the state of exception and adoption of necropolitics does the world have a right, and a duty, to intervene? Thus far, it has always occurred too late for the "people" in that sovereign to realize their political and social potential to be "People." i DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the nearly one million Rwandans killed in the summer of 1994, and to the millions of Rwandans working to live today. May we learn. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank John Johnson, who chaired my committee, traveled to Rwanda with me in 2010, and generally provided me with the kindest and most supportive guidance that one could ever hope for, in a PhD program, or in life. Professor Johnson’s knowledge about genocide is impressive; his ability to communicate it to me in a way that expanded my understanding was incredibly helpful. I wrote this dissertation in what many would consider less than ideal circumstances – but John’s patience with me juggling work, politics, teaching, campaigning, and writing a book about genocide and political philosophy helped me through every step. The rest of my committee deserves great thanks and appreciation as well. Their support and understanding of the circumstances in which I completed this dissertation helped me feel as if I really could get it all done. I thank Professor Quan for first introducing me to Giorgio Agamben and the state of exception. I thank Professor Gomez for expanding the world of the state of exception to include Foucault, Mbembe, Schmitt and others. I continue to be fascinated by the sovereign’s ability to suspend the rights of its people. These scholars provide a cogent warning for those of us in the world of politics – a warning we must heed. I also thank Professor Gomez for encouraging me to push at the limits of the philosophy offered by others who have written before me. I thank Professor Doty for her application of the state of exception to other occurrences – it was her iii writing about the state of exception in a recent book that helped me consider the application to the Rwandan genocide. I am grateful to the School of Justice and Social Inquiry, in particular to Nancy Winn, who ensured that I made deadlines and turned in the proper paperwork. Without her assistance, I would be ABD forever. In the Preface, I express gratitude to the many people who assisted me in the research phase of this dissertation; without extraordinary access and help, I would not have had the primary materials needed to complete this work. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE...... .................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER 1 PRELUDE TO GENOCIDE ........................................................... 1 The Rwandan Patriotic Front ........................................................ 5 Politics and Pogroms, 1990-1994................................................... 7 Arms Deals, 1990-1994 .............................................................. 23 Conclusion.................................................................................. 29 2 RWANDAN GOVERNMENT AND PROPAGANDA ................ 31 Radio Rwanda............................................................................. 32 RTLM........................................................................................ 34 Kangura ..................................................................................... 36 Propaganda Theories................................................................... 37 Messages Utilized....................................................................... 40 Anti-Tutsi Propaganda Was Carefully Planned and Executed.......67 3 PRE-COLONIAL RWANDA MEETS BELGIAN RULE.............. 69 The Origins of Hutu, Tutsi, and Twa........................................... 70 Clans, Not Tribes........................................................................ 75 Division of Labor........................................................................ 77 Organization and Diffusion of Power........................................... 81 v CHAPTER Page The Germans .............................................................................. 83 The Belgians ............................................................................... 86 Speke’s Race Science Theory ...................................................... 87 The Census and Identity Cards ................................................... 89 Power – Consolidation of Leadership Positions ........................... 91 Traditional Systems – ubuletwa, ubureetwa, and ubuhake............ 94 Tutsis in Government and Education………………………….....96 Hutus Flock to the Church.......................................................... 98 The Lasting Legacy of the Belgians............................................. 99 4 FROM KAYIBANDA TO HABYIRAMANA ............................ 100 Transition Towards Independence............................................. 100 Hutu Manifesto of 1957 and the Advent of Political Parties…..103 Guy Logiest and the Belgian Switch………………………........106 Democratic Elections and the Hutu Revolution………………...110 Tutsi Massacres, 1959 to 1962 – Necropolitics in Rwanda……112 The Kayibanda Regime – a State of Exception………………....116 People v. people ....................................................................... 122 Camps (forced relocation and restriction of movement)………..126 Pogroms of 1962-1973 – Necropolitics Continued………….....128 Habyarimana Coup…………………………………………......132 vi CHAPTER Page Habyarimana Regime & Legal Changes…………………………134 The Akazu ................................................................................ 139 Drought, Famine, Coffee Collapse ............................................. 142 International Pressure – Threats to Hutu Power……………….144 5 GENOCIDE ................................................................................. 145 Plane Crash............................................................................... 147 The Arusha Pressure Cooker…………………………………...151 Genocide .................................................................................. 165 Organization in the Execution…………………………………..180 RTLM and Radio Rwanda as Genocidal Guides……………….188 State of Exception Fully Realized.............................................. 196 6 CONCLUSION ........................................................................... 198 ENDNOTES .................................................................................................. 203 vii PREFACE I am indebted to a number of people and institutions for assisting me in the process of gathering data about Rwanda’s genocide and the laws and policies implemented in Rwanda during the nearly 35 years prior to the genocide. In the summers of 2010 and 2011, I traveled to Rwanda, Tanzania, London, and Wales to locate documents relating to Rwanda’s political history. Here, I describe how I gained access to the documents utilized in this dissertation, as I was able to review documents not easily available to the general public. On my first trip to Rwanda in August 2010, ASU professor John Johnson, chair of my committee, accompanied me. We visited all of the seven major genocide memorial sites in the country during this trip, starting with the Kigali Genocide Memorial Centre and ending with the Bisesero site, home of the greatest